Tendai
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Tendai (
By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), Tendai had become one of the dominant forms of Japanese Buddhism, with numerous temples and vast landholdings. During the Kamakura period, various monks left Tendai (seeing it as corrupt) to establish their own "new" or "Kamakura" Buddhist schools such as Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shinshū, Nichiren-shū and Sōtō Zen.[2] The destruction of the head temple of Enryaku-ji by Oda Nobunaga in 1571, as well as the geographic shift of the capital away from Kyoto to Edo, further weakened Tendai's influence.[3]
In Chinese and Japanese, its name is identical to Tiantai, its parent Chinese Buddhism school. Both traditions emphasize the importance of the Lotus Sutra and revere the teachings of Tiantai patriarchs, especially Zhiyi. In English, the Japanese romanization Tendai is used to refer specifically to the Japanese school. According to Hazama Jikō, the main characteristic of Tendai "is its advocacy of a comprehensive Buddhism, the ideal of a Buddhist school based on what is called the "One Great Perfect Teaching," the idea that all the teachings of the Buddha are ultimately without contradiction and can be unified in one comprehensive and perfect system."[4]
Other unique elements include an exclusive use of the bodhisattva precepts for ordination (without the pratimoksha), a practice tradition based on the "Four Integrated Schools" (Pure Land, Zen, Mikkyo and Precepts), and an emphasis on the study of Chinese Esoteric Buddhist sources.[4] David W. Chappell sees Tendai as "the most comprehensive and diversified" Buddhist tradition which provides a religious framework that is "suited to adapt to other cultures, to evolve new practices, and to universalize Buddhism."[5]
History[edit]
Foundation by Saichō[edit]
Although Jianzhen (Jp. Ganjin) had brought Tiantai teachings to Japan as early as 754,[6] its teachings did not take root until generations later when the monk Saichō
From the city of Ningbo (then called Míngzhōu
Because of the Imperial Court's interest in Tiantai as well as esoteric Buddhism, Saichō quickly rose in prominence upon his return. He was asked by Emperor Kanmu (735–806) to perform various esoteric rituals, and Saichō also sought recognition from the Emperor for a new, independent Tendai school in Japan.[8] Because the emperor sought to reduce the power of the Hossō school, he granted this request, but with the stipulation that the new "Tendai" school would have two programs: one for esoteric Buddhism and one for exoteric Buddhist practice.[9]
The new Tendai school was therefore based on a combination of the doctrinal and meditative system of Zhiyi with esoteric Buddhist practice and texts. Tendai learning at Mount Hiei traditionally followed two curriculums:[1][9]
- Shikan-gō
止觀 業 : Exoteric practice, mainly based on Zhiyi's Mohezhiguan - Shana-gō
遮 那 業 : Esoteric Buddhism, focused on the Mahāvairocana-sūtra and other tantric works
However, Emperor Kanmu died shortly thereafter, and Saichō was not allocated any ordinands until 809 with the reign of Emperor Saga. Saichō's choice of establishing his community at Mount Hiei also proved fortuitous because it was located at the northeast of the new capital of Kyoto and thus was auspicious in terms of Chinese geomancy as the city's protector.[11]
Disagreements with other schools[edit]
The remainder of Saichō's life was spent in heated debates with notable Hossō figures, particularly Tokuitsu, and maintaining an increasingly strained relationship with Kūkai (from whom he received esoteric initiations) to broaden his understanding of esoteric Buddhism. The debates with the Hossō school was primarily centered on the doctrine of the One Vehicle (ekayana) found in the Lotus Sutra which the Hossō school saw as not being an ultimate teaching. This was known as the San-Itsu Gon-Jitsu Ronsō (the debate over whether the One-vehicle or Three-vehicles, were the provisional or the real teaching) and it had a great influence on Japanese Buddhism.[8]
Saichō also studied esoteric Buddhism under Kūkai, the founder of the Shingon school. Saichō borrowed esoteric texts from Kūkai for copying and they also exchanged letters for some time. However, they eventually had a falling out (in around 816) over their understanding of Buddhist esotericism.[1] This was because Saichō attempted to integrate esoteric Buddhism (mikkyo) into his broader Tendai schema, seeing esoteric Buddhism as equal to the Tendai Lotus Sutra teaching. Saichō would write that Tendai and Mikkyo "interfuse with one another" and that "there should be no such thing as preferring one to the other."[1] Meanwhile, Kūkai saw mikkyo as different from and fully superior to kengyo (exoteric Buddhism) and was also concerned that Saichō had not finished his esoteric studies personally under him.[1]
Saichō's efforts were also devoted to developing a Mahāyāna ordination platform that required the Bodhisattva Precepts of the Brahmajala Sutra only, and not the pratimokṣa code of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya, which was traditionally used in East Asian Buddhist monasticism. Saichō saw the precepts of the small vehicle (hinayana) as no longer being necessary.[8] His ideas were attacked by the more traditional Nara schools as well as the Sōgō (the Office of Monastic Affairs) and they were not initially approved by the imperial court. Saichō wrote the Kenkairon to respond to their criticisms. By the time that Saichō died in 822, his yearly petition was finally granted and the traditional "Four Part Vinaya" (Chinese:
Development after Saichō[edit]
Seven days after Saichō died, the Imperial Court granted permission for the new Tendai Bodhisattva Precept ordination process which allowed Tendai to use an ordination platform separate from the powerful schools in Nara. Gishin, Saichō's disciple and the first "zasu" (
By 864, Tendai monks were now appointed to the powerful sōgō (
Development of Tendai practice and esotericism[edit]
Philosophically, the Tendai school did not deviate substantially from the beliefs that had been created by the Tiantai school in China. However, Saichō had also transmitted numerous teachings from China was not exclusively Tiantai, but also included Zen (
After Saichō, the Tendai order underwent efforts to deepen its understanding of teachings collected by the founder, particularly esoteric Buddhism. Saichō had only received initiation in the Diamond Realm Mandala, and since the rival Shingon school under Kūkai had received deeper training, early Tendai monks felt it necessary to return to China for further initiation and instruction. Saichō's disciple Ennin went to China in 838 and returned ten years later with a more thorough understanding of esoteric, Pure Land, and Tiantai teachings.[12] Ennin brought important esoteric texts and initiation lineages, such as the Susiddhikāra-sūtra, the Mahāvairocana-sūtra and Vajraśekhara-sūtra.[citation needed]
However, in later years, this range of teachings began to form sub-schools within Tendai Buddhism. By the time of Ryōgen, there were two distinct groups on Mt. Hiei, the Jimon and Sanmon: the Sammon-ha "Mountain Group" (
Sōō
Akaku Daishi Annen
According to Lucia Dolce, Annen "systematized earlier and contemporary doctrines elaborated in both streams of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, Tōmitsu (i.e., Shingon) and Taimitsu (Tendai)," "critically reinterpreted Kūkai's thought, offering new understandings of crucial esoteric concepts and rituals," and he also "elaborated theories that were to become emblematic of Japanese Buddhism, such as the realization of buddhahood by grasses and trees (sōmoku jōbutsu)" as well as hongaku shisō thought.[16]
These various post-Saichō Tendai figures also developed the Tendai doctrine of "the identity of the purport of Perfect and Esoteric teachings" (enmitsu itchi
Ryōgen
Genshin
Medieval Japan (12th–16th century)[edit]
Although the Tendai sect flourished under the patronage of the Imperial House of Japan and the noble classes, by the end of the Heian period, it experienced an increasing breakdown in monastic discipline, plus political entanglements with rival factions of the Genpei War, namely the Taira and Minamoto clans. Due to its patronage and growing popularity among the upper classes, the Tendai sect became not only respected, but also politically and even militarily powerful, with major temples having vast landholdings and fielding their own monastic armies of sōhei (warrior-monks).[2] This was not unusual for major temples at the time, as rival schools also fielded armies, such as the head temple of the Yogācāra school, Kōfuku-ji. With the outbreak of the Genpei War, Tendai temples even fought one another, such as Mount Hiei clashing with Mii-dera depending on their political affiliations.[citation needed]
In response to the perceived worldliness of the powerful Tendai school, a number of low-ranking Tendai monks became dissatisfied and sought to establish independent schools of their own. The major figures of "New Kamakura Buddhism" like Nichiren, Hōnen, Shinran, Eisai and Dōgen—all famous thinkers in non-Tendai schools of Japanese Buddhism—were all initially trained as Tendai monks.[2] Tendai practices and monastic organization were adopted to some degree or another by each of these new schools, but one common feature of each school was a more narrowly-focused set of practices (e.g. daimoku for the Nichiren school, zazen for Zen, nembutsu for Pure Land schools, etc.) in contrast to the more integrated approach of the Tendai. In spite of the rise of these new competing schools which saw Tendai as being "corrupt", medieval Tendai remained a "a rich, varied, and thriving tradition" during the medieval period according to Jacqueline Stone.[2]
Although a number of breakaway schools rose during the Kamakura period, the Tendai school used its patronage to try to oppose the growth of these rival factions—particularly Nichiren Buddhism, which began to grow in power among the merchant middle class, and Pure Land Buddhism, which eventually came to claim the loyalty of many of the lower classes. Enryaku-ji, the temple complex on Mount Hiei, became a sprawling center of power, attended not only by ascetic monks, but also by brigades of sōhei (warrior monks) who fought in the temple's interest. As a result, in 1571 Enryaku-ji was razed by Oda Nobunaga as part of his campaign to unify Japan. Nobunaga regarded the Mount Hiei monks as a potential threat or rival, as they could employ religious claims to attempt to rally the populace to their side. The temple complex was later rebuilt, and continues to serve as the head Tendai temple today.[citation needed]
Kamakura period Tendai also produced a number of important figures of its own, including Jien
Hōjibō Shōshin
Worldview[edit]
According to Jiko Hazama, the Tendai Buddhist worldview advocates a comprehensive form of Buddhism which sees all Buddhist teachings as being unified under an inclusive reading of the ekayāna teaching of the Lotus Sutra.[23] This holistic and inclusive form of Buddhism is based on the doctrinal synthesis of Tiantai Zhiyi, which was ultimately based on the Lotus Sutra.[23]
Tendai Buddhism has several philosophical insights which allow for the reconciliation of Buddhist doctrine with aspects of Japanese culture such as Shinto and Japanese aesthetics. These include Zhiyi's theory of perfect interfusion or unity of all phenomena (expressed in teachings like ichinen sanzen "three thousand realms in one thought") and the Tendai theory of hongaku (original enlightenment) which holds that enlightenment is intrinsic in all things. Also central to Tendai thought is the notion that the phenomenal world, the world of our experiences, fundamentally is an expression of the Buddhist law (Dharma). This notion poses the problem of how we come to have many differentiated experiences. Tendai Buddhism claims that each and every sense phenomenon just as it is is the expression of Dharma.[citation needed]
In the major Tendai institutions like Taisho University and Mount Hiei, the main subjects of study are the Lotus Sutra, the works of the Tiantai Patriarch Zhiyi, the works of the founder Saichō and some later Tendai figures like Ennin.[24]
The Lotus Sutra and Classic Tiantai Thought[edit]
The thought of the Japanese Tendai school is founded on the classic Chinese Tiantai doctrines found in the works of patriarch Zhìyǐ. These include:[5]
- The One Vehicle of the Lotus Sutra,
- The Three Truths,
- The Three Samadhis,
- The Five Periods and Eight Teachings,
- The Four Siddhanta,
- "Three Thousand Realms in a Single Thought Moment" (ichinen sanzen
一念 三 千 ).
Tendai Buddhism reveres the Lotus Sutra as the highest teaching in Buddhism. In Saichō's writings, he frequently used the terminology hokke engyō "Perfect Teaching of the Lotus Sutra" (
Saichō taught that there were "three kinds of Lotus Sutra". According to Jacqueline Stone, these can be explained as follows:[26]
- The Fundamental Lotus: "the one vehicle which represents the Buddha's single compassionate intent, underlying all his teachings, to lead all beings to buddhahood."
- The Hidden and Secret Lotus: "those teachings in which, due to the immaturity of the Buddha's audience, this intention is not outwardly revealed."
- The Lotus that was Preached Explicitly: The actual text of the Lotus Sutra.
Stone writes that Saicho saw all Buddhist teachings as being the true "Lotus Sutra" and he therefore attempted to integrate all Buddhist teachings he had studied within a single framework based on the Lotus Sutra's One Vehicle.[26]
Hazama Jikō writes that the central feature of Tendai thought is its advocacy of the "One Great Perfect Teaching" (
Saichō believed that by consolidating all Buddhist ideas and practices and including all the varieties of Buddhism, his new school would allow all to "enter the great sea of Thusness which has a single flavor" (
Tendai thought also vigorously defends the idea that all beings have the potential for full buddhahood and thus that the Lotus Sutra was a teaching for all sentient beings.[26] This teaching in particular was a major point of contention with the Japanese Hossō (Yogacara) school in Japan who espoused the Five Natures Doctrine (
Doctrinal classification[edit]
Tendai thought also frames its understanding of Buddhist practice on the Lotus Sutra's teaching of upāya or hōben (
Annen provided a new doctrinal classification system (based on Zhiyi's system) for Japanese Tendai. All Buddhist teachings are seen as being included into the following categories. The first major group are those teachings that rely on the three vehicles:[17]
- The Tripiṭaka teachings (zō
藏 ), i.e. sravakayana or Hinayana - The Common teaching to both Mahayana and non-Mahayana (tsū
通 ) - The uniquely Mahayana teachings (betsu
別 )
The highest teachings are those who derive from the one vehicle:[17]
- The Perfect Tendai teaching, derived from the Lotus Sutra, and the Avataṃsaka-sūtra (en
圓 ) - The Esoteric teachings (mitsu
密 )
Buddhahood with this very body[edit]
Another important doctrine in Japanese Tendai is that it is possible to attain "Buddhahood with this very body" (sokushin jōbutsu). This is closely related to the idea of original enlightenment.[28] This idea was introduced by Saichō, who held that this described certain advanced practitioners who had realized the fifth degree of identity, though this attainment was a rare thing.[28] Saichō understood the Lotus Sutra to be the "great direct path" to Buddhahood which could be attained in this very body.[29] Saichō saw the story of the Dragon king's daughter in the Lotus Sutra's Devadatta chapter as evidence for this direct path (jikidō) to Buddhahood which did not require three incalculable eons (as was taught in some forms of Mahayana Buddhism), but could be achieved in three lives or even one lifetime.[25][28]
Later Tendai scholars like Rinshō, and Annen were much more optimistic about the possibility of Buddhahood in this very body and claimed certain esoteric practices could lead to Buddhahood rapidly in only one lifetime, while de-emphasizing the concern with achieving Buddhahood in future lives. They also further extended the application of this idea to individuals at the lower bodhisattva levels of the degrees of identity schema and also argued that one could jump over bodhisattva stages. According to Groner, this allowed "for the possibility that worldlings who still have some of the coarser defilements might experience sokushinjobutsu."[28]
However, other Tendai figures like Hōjibō Shōshin (1136–1220 or 1131–1215), an important Tendai commentator on Zhiyi's works, were more traditional and critical of ideas concerning the rapid realization of Buddhahood for everyone (without denying the possibility of Buddhahood in this body). For Shōshin, sokushin jōbutsu applied to those who had "superior religious faculties" because they "have previously practiced the various provisional teachings" in many previous lives.[28]
Hongaku[edit]
The Tendai school was the locus of the development of the Japanese doctrine of hongaku
Stone writes that the medieval Tendai doctrine regards "enlightenment or the ideal state as inherent from the outset and as accessible in the present, rather than as the fruit of a long process of cultivation."[30] Scholars also refer to the doctrinal system associated with this idea as "original enlightenment thought". Stone defines this as the "array of doctrines and concepts associated with the proposition that all beings are enlightened inherently."[30] According to Stone, as these teachings developed, they grew to include the idea that:
Not only human beings, but ants and crickets, mountains and rivers, grasses and trees are all innately Buddhas. The Buddhas who appear in sutras, radiating light and endowed with excellent marks, are merely provisional signs. The "real" Buddha is the ordinary worldling. Indeed, the whole phenomenal world is the primordially enlightened Tathāgata.[30]
Tamura Yoshirō argued that hongaku was a non-dual teaching which saw all existents as interpenetrating and mutually identified. This negates any ontological difference between Buddhas and common people as well as between pure lands and mundane worlds. Tamura argued that this move re-affirms the relative phenomenal world as an expression of the ultimate nondual reality and is found in phrases like "the worldly passions are precisely enlightenment" and "birth and death are precisely nirvana".[30] These lineages also transmitted their teachings through transmission rituals which made use of mirrors to illustrate nonduality and the interpenetration of all phenomena.[30]
Hongaku teachings were passed down through various exoteric teaching lineages (which often involved secrecy), the largest of which were the Eshin-ryu and the Danna-ryu. At the core of these doctrinal systems was the Tendai practice of the "threefold contemplation in a single thought" (isshin sangan
While certain scholars have seen hongaku thought as denying the need for Buddhist practice, Stone notes that Tendai hongaku based texts like the Shinnyokan
Hongaku thought was also influential on the development of New Kamakura Buddhism and the founders of these schools, though they had their own unique understandings.[2] However, not all Tendai thinkers embraced hongaku thought. For example, the more conservative commentator Hōjibō Shōshin criticized hongaku ideas as a denial of causality.[30]
Practice[edit]
Tendai Practice Theory[edit]
A feature unique to Japanese Tendai Buddhism from its inception was the concept of shishūyūgō (
Under the umbrella of the Lotus Sutra, Tendai integrates four main aspects of Mahayana Buddhist practice:
- Pure Land practices, especially the recitation of the Buddha's name (nembutsu), such as the name of Amitabha
- Śamatha-vipaśyanā meditation (Jp. shikan
止観 , "calming-insight" meditation). The main source for this in Tendai is Zhiyi's Móhē zhǐguān. - Esoteric practices which make use of mantras, mudras and mandalas, also known as taimitsu
台 密 . - Precepts, in particular the Bodhisattva Precepts.
According to Saichō and other later Tendai scholars, the Perfect teaching of the Lotus Sutra and the tantric doctrines and practices of Esoteric Buddhism had the same ultimate intent. This view of the equality and compatibility between the Tiantai Lotus teachings and Esoteric Buddhism was important for Saichō.[9][28] Unlike the Shingon founder Kūkai, Saichō did not see esoteric teachings as more powerful or superior to exoteric Tendai teaching and practice. Instead, Saichō held that all Buddhist teachings are included in the single intent of the Lotus Sutra's teaching.[9][10] This idea is reflected in the saying "Shingon (esoteric Buddhism) and (Tien-tai) shikan are essentially one; therefore both traditions are propagated on one mountain" (from Shōshin's Tendai Shingon nishii doi sho).[4]
Certain later Tendai figures like Ennin also argued that esoteric practices led to Buddhahood faster than exoteric (non-esoteric) practices and some (such as Annen) argued that they were the only way to full Buddhahood.[28] These figures also often saw the Lotus Sutra (which refers itself as "the secret essential of the buddhas" and "the secret treasure of the Tathagatha") as an esoteric text and this view has some precedent in the Chinese Tiantai tradition.[28]
However, other more conservative figures like Hōjibō Shōshin rejected the idea that esoteric Buddhism is higher or superior to Tendai Mahayana practice, since both of these traditions are ultimately founded on the middle way and both teach the contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas. Shōshin held that mantras and other esoteric practices were merely another skillful means for contemplating the middle way and are thus different expressions of the same principle. He also argued that these teachings both derive from the same Buddha, since Mahāvairocana and the Buddha of the Lotus Sūtra are ultimately the same.[31] In some cases, Shōshin goes further, arguing that certain esoteric practices, such as those that make use of images like mandalas or lunar discs, were designed for those with dull faculties, while the Tendai practice of "discerning one's own mind" (Jp. kanjin,
Pure Land practice[edit]
Practices related to and veneration of Amitābha and his pure land of Sukhavati in the Tendai tradition began with Saichō's disciple, Ennin. After journeying to China for further study and training, he brought back a practice called the "five-tone nembutsu" or goe nenbutsu (
However, both meditation on the Pure Land (kansō nenbutsu
In addition to increasing monastic practices related to the Pure Land, monks also taught Pure Land practices to the lay community in the form of reciting the Buddha's name. The most famous of these nenbutsu hijiri (
Pure Land Buddhist thought was further developed by a Tendai monk named Genshin (
Finally, Pure Land practices in Tendai were further popularized by former Tendai monk Hōnen, who established the first independent Pure Land school, the Jōdo-shū, and whose disciples carried the teachings to remote provinces in one form or another. This includes another ex-Tendai monk named Shinran, who eventually established the related Jōdo Shinshū.
Tendai Esotericism (Taimitsu)[edit]
One of the adaptations by the Tendai school was the introduction of esoteric Buddhist practice into Tendai Buddhism. This was originally known as "the shingon (or mikkyō) of the Tendai lineages" and was later named Taimitsu "Tendai Esotericism" (
Taimitsu claims that through the chanting of mantras, maintaining mudras, and performing certain meditations using mandalas (known as "the three mysteries"), one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that they are inherently an enlightened being, and can attain Buddhahood within this very body. Eventually, these esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the teachings of the Lotus Sutra, which was also seen as an esoteric sutra (but only "in principle", not "in practice", since it did not include the practice of the three mysteries).[28]
The origins of Taimitsu are found in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism similar to the lineage of Kūkai, and Saichō's disciples were encouraged to study under him.[34] As a result, Tendai esoteric ritual bears much in common with Shingon, though the underlying doctrines differ. Regarding textual basis, while Shingon mainly uses the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra (seeing these as the highest and most superior texts), Tendai uses a larger corpus of texts to understand and practice esoteric Buddhism.[12] Other differences mainly relate to lineages and outlook. There are several lineages of Taimitsu, the main ones being the Sanmon
Some Taimitsu scholars, like Ennin, classify esoteric scriptures into two classes: those containing the principles of esoteric Buddhism (i.e. the non-duality of ultimate truth and worldly truth) were called rimitsu and those that teach the principles and practices (i.e. the three mysteries) were called riji gumitsu.[16] The first category was said to include the Nirvana, Lotus, Vimalakīrti, and Huayan sūtras, all of which were seen as esoteric in principle. The second category includes the tantric scriptures like the Mahavairocana, Vajrasekhara, the Susiddhikāra Sūtra (Soshitsujikara), the Pudichang jing
Bodhisattva precepts[edit]
The Tendai school's ethical teachings focus exclusively on the Bodhisattva Precepts (C. pusajie, J. bostasukai
The bodhisattva precepts in Tendai are all said to rely on three types of "pure precepts" (sanjujokai
- Precepts against doing evil deeds, such as murder, theft, pride, anger, and so forth (sho ritsugi kai
摂 律 儀 戒) - Precepts encouraging good activity, for benefiting oneself (sho zenbo kai
摂 菩法戒) - Precepts encouraging activity which will benefit others (sho shujo kai
摂 衆生 戒)
According to Hazama Jikō:[4]
The first category includes the prohibitions against the ten major and forty-eight minor transgressions as explained in the Bonmokyo 梵辋
経 (T24, 997–1010). It also includes general restrictions against any kind of evil activity, whether physical, verbal, or mental. Any and all kinds of moral cultivation are included. The second category entails every kind of good activity, including but not limited to acts associated with the Buddhist categories of keeping precepts, the practice of concentration (samadhi), and the cultivation of wisdom. Also included are such worldly pursuits as dedication to scholarly excellence, or any effort aimed at self improvement. The third category refers not only to the effort to help and save all sentient beings through the perfection of the six Mahayana virtues (paramita, charity, morality, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom), but also includes such mundane activity as raising one's children with loving care, living for the sake of others, and dedicating oneself to the good of society.
The Tendai school made extensive use of the Lotus Sutra in its interpretation of the bodhisattva precepts, even though the sutra does not itself contains a specific list of precepts. Also, various passages from the sutra were used to defend the Tendai position not to follow the pratimoksha, since they state, for example, "we will not follow śrāvaka ways."[36]
The bodhisattva precepts were seen as being based on the Lotus Sutra's teaching that all beings have the potential for Buddhahood and that they have a fundamental goodness, or Buddha-nature.[4] This was the fundamental ethical teaching for Tendai thought. Saichō believed that the world had entered the age of Dharma decline (mappō) and that because of this, the Hinayana precepts were no longer able to be practiced and no longer needed. He also believed that the Japanese people were naturally inclined to the Mahayana Buddhism. Because of this, Saichō argued that only Mahayana precepts were needed.[4]
Zen[edit]
Saichō also received Chan (Zen) teachings in China from the Oxhead (Jp. Gozu) school and Northern schools integrated them into his Tendai system.[37] He was a student of the Oxhead master Shunian (Shukunen), who resided at Chanlinsi (Zenrinji) Temple.[8] Saichō brought over the first copy of the Platform Sutra to Japan.[38]
Some of the views of Saichō regarding the Mahayana precepts were drawn from the Tiantai masters Huisi and Daosui and the teachings Chan masters like Bodhidharma, Dao-xuan (Dōsen, especially his commentary on the Brahmā's Net Sūtra) and Daoxin (Dōshin, particularly his "Manual of Rules of Bodhisattva Precepts").[35] These Chinese Chan masters emphasized formless practice (
Tendai and Shinto[edit]
Tendai doctrine allowed Japanese Buddhists to reconcile Buddhist teachings with the native religious beliefs and practices of Japan (now labeled "Shinto"). In the case of Shinto, the difficulty is the reconciliation of the pantheon of Japanese gods (kami), as well as with the myriad spirits associated with places, shrines or objects, with Buddhist teachings. These gods and spirits were initially seen as local protectors of Buddhism.[41]
Sannō Shintō
These religious ideas eventually led to the development of a Japanese current of thought called honji suijaku (
Shugendō[edit]
Some Tendai Buddhist temples and mountains are also sites for the practice of the syncretic Shugendō tradition. Shugendō is a mountain ascetic practice which also adopted Tendai and Shingon elements. This tradition focuses on ascetic practices on mountainous terrain.[42][43] The practice of Shugendō is most prominent among certain Tendai branches, like the Jimon-ha
Art and aesthetics[edit]
The classic Buddhist understanding of the Four Noble Truths posits that craving for pleasure, worldly desire and attachment must be cut off to put an end to suffering (dukkha). In early Buddhism, the emphasis, especially for monastics, was on avoiding activities that might arouse worldly desires, including many artistic endeavors like music and performance arts. This tendency toward rejecting certain popular art forms created a potential conflict with mainstream East Asian cultures.
However, later Mahayana views developed a different emphasis which embraced all the arts. In Japan, certain Buddhist rituals (which were also performed in Tendai) grew to include music and dance, and these became very popular with the people.[45] Doctrinally, these performative arts were seen as skillful means (hōben, Skt. upaya) of teaching Buddhism. Monks specializing in such arts were called yūsō ("artistic monks").[46] The writing of religious poetry was also a major pursuit among certain Tendai as well as Shingon figures, like the Shingon priest Shukaku and the Tendai monk Jien (1155–1225). These poets met together to discuss poetry in poetry circles (kadan).[47] According to Deal and Ruppert, "Shingon, Tendai and Nara cloisters had a great impact on the development of literary treatises and poetry houses."[47]
Another influential poet monk from the Tendai tradition was Fujiwara no Shunzei (1114–1204).[48] His son, Fujiwara no Teika was also influenced by the classic Tendai thought of Zhiyi. These two figures were central to the development of the aesthetic concept of yūgen (
Notable Tendai scholars[edit]
In the history of Tendai school, a number of notable monks have contributed to Tendai thought and administration of Mt. Hiei:
- Saichō – Founder.
- Gishin – Second zasu (
座主 , "Head priest") of the Tendai School, who travelled with Saicho to China and ordained alongside him. - Ennin – Saicho's successor, the first to try to merge esoteric practices with exoteric Tendai School theories (this merger is now known as "Taimitsu"), as well as promote nianfo.
- Enchin – Gishin successor, junior to Ennin. The first to successfully assimilate esoteric buddhism to Tendai, and a notable administrator as well.
- Annen - Henjō (Ennin's disciple)'s successor, junior to Enchin. An influential thinker who's known having finalized the assimilation of esoteric and exoteric buddhism within Tendai.
- Ryōgen – Annen's successor, and skilled politician who helped ally the Tendai School with the Fujiwara clan.
- Toba Sōjō (1053–1140) – the 48th zasu and a satirical artist. Sometimes he is credited as the author of Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, one of the earliest manga, but this attribution is highly disputed.
- Sengaku (1203 – c. 1273) – a Tendai scholar and literary critic, who authored an influential commentary on the Man'yōshū, the oldest extant Japanese poetry.
- Gien (1394–1441) – the 153rd zasu, who later returned to secular life and reigned Japan as Ashikaga Yoshinori, the sixth shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate.
- Tenkai (1536–1643) – a Tendai dai-sōjō (
大僧正 , "archbishop"), who served as an entrusted advisor of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate.
See also[edit]
- Tiantai Buddhism, the Chinese sect that Tendai developed from
- Nichiren Buddhism, which developed the Tendai emphasis on the Lotus Sutra into a distinctive Japanese Buddhist school
- Enryaku-ji, the headquarters of Tendai Buddhism on Mount Hiei
- Kaihōgyō
- Hongaku
Notes[edit]
- ^ a b c d e f Ryuichi Abe. Saichō and Kūkai: A Conflict of Interpretations Ryuichi Abe. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1995 22/1-2
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Stone, Jacqueline (1 May 1995). "Medieval Tendai hongaku thought and the new Kamakura Buddhism: A reconsideration". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 22 (1–2). doi:10.18874/jjrs.22.1-2.1995.17-48.
- ^ Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan 1334-1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 284. ISBN 0-8047-0525-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hazama Jikō. The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1987 14/2-3
- ^ a b Chappell, David W. (1987). 'Is Tendai Buddhism Relevant to the Modern World?' in Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1987 14/2-3. Source: Nanzan Univ.; accessed: Saturday August 16, 2008. p.247
- ^ Groner, Paul (2000). Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School. Hawaii University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8248-2371-0.
- ^ Groner, Paul (2000). Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School. Hawaii University Press. pp. 41–47. ISBN 0-8248-2371-0.
- ^ a b c d e f Hazama Jikō “Dengyo Daishi’s Life and Teachings” in “The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14/2-3 (1987): 101-112.
- ^ a b c d e Gardiner, David L. (2019). Tantric Buddhism in Japan: Kūkai and Saichō. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.621
- ^ a b Forte, Victor. Saichō: Founding Patriarch of Japanese Buddhism In Gereon Kopf (ed.), The Dao Companion to Japanese Buddhist Philosophy. Springer. pp. 307-335 (2019)
- ^ Groner, Paul (2000). Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School. Hawaii University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-8248-2371-0.
- ^ a b c d e f g うちのお
寺 は天台宗 (双葉 文庫 ) [My Temple is Tendai] (in Japanese).双葉社 . July 2016. ISBN 978-4-575-71457-9. - ^ Rhodes, Robert F. “ The Kaihogyo Practice of Mt. Hiei.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14/2-3 (1987): 185-202.
- ^ Dolce, Lucia; Mano, Shinya (2011). Godai'in Annen. Leiden: Brill NV. p. 770.
- ^ Dolce, Lucia; Mano, Shinya (2011). Godai'in Annen. Leiden: Brill NV. p. 771.
- ^ a b c d e f Dolce, Lucia. Taimitsu: The Esoteric Buddhism Of The Tendai School In: "Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia", pp. 744–767. BRILL. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004184916.i-1200.302
- ^ a b c Ōkubo Ryōshun
大久保 良 峻 . “The Identity between the Purport of the Perfect and Esoteric Teachings.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 41/1 (2014): 83–102. - ^ Groner, Paul. Ryōgen and Mt. Hiei: Japanese Tendai in the Tenth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
- ^ Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse (1999). Original Enlightenment and the Transformation of Medieval Japanese Buddhism. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. p. 118. ISBN 0-8248-2026-6.
- ^ Morrell, Robert E. Early Kamakura Buddhism: A Minority Report. Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, 1987.
- ^ McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley.
- ^ McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. p. 223.
- ^ a b Hazama, Jiko (1987). The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14 (2-3), p. 102 PDF
- ^ Covell, Stephen G. Learning to Persevere The Popular Teachings of Tendai Ascetics Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 31/2: 255-287 © 2004 Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
- ^ a b Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse (2009), Interpreting the Lotus Sutra; in: Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse; eds. Readings of the Lotus Sutra, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 1–61, ISBN 978-0-231-14288-5
- ^ a b c d Stone, Jacqueline (1999). Inclusive and Exclusive Perspectives on the One Vehicle
- ^ Groner, Paul (2000). Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School, pp. 96-97. University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Groner, Paul. Shortening the Path: Early Tendai Interpretations of the Realization of Buddhahood with This Very Body (Sokushin jobutsu) in Buswell, Robert E.; Gimello, Robert M. (1992) "Paths to Liberation: The Mārga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought". University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Lopez, Donald S.; Stone, Jacqueline I. (2019). Two Buddhas Seated Side by Side: A Guide to the Lotus Sūtra, Princeton University Press, p. 20.
- ^ a b c d e f Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse (2003). Original enlightenment and the transformation of medieval Japanese Buddhism. Issue 12 of Studies in East Asian Buddhism. A Kuroda Institute book: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2771-7. Source: [1] (accessed: Thursday April 22, 2010), p.3
- ^ McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 225-226.
- ^ McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 227-228.
- ^ a b "Early Japanese Pure Land Masters, Jodo Shu homepage Homepage". Archived from the original on 2012-02-20. Retrieved 2018-08-25.
- ^ Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-231-11286-6.
- ^ a b Lin, Pei‐Yin (2011) Precepts and lineage in Chan tradition: cross‐cultural perspectives in ninth century East Asia, pp. 147-148, 154-157. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14241
- ^ Groner, Paul. The Lotus Sutra and the Perfect-Sudden Precepts. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 41/1: 103–131 © 2014 Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
- ^ Groner, Paul (2000). Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School, pp. 255-256. University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Vladimir K. (2005) Legends in Ch’an: the Northern/Southern Schools Split, Hui-neng and the Platform Sutra
- ^ Lin, Pei‐Yin (2011) Precepts and lineage in Chan tradition: cross‐cultural perspectives in ninth century East Asia, p. 158. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14241
- ^ Lin, Pei‐Yin (2011) Precepts and lineage in Chan tradition: cross‐cultural perspectives in ninth century East Asia, p. 166. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14241
- ^ a b c Sugahara Shinkai
菅原 信 海 The Distinctive Features of Sanno Ichijitsu Shinto. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1996 23/1-2. - ^ a b "
修験 道 とは・・・「自然 と人間 」". Tendaijimon Sect. Archived from the original on 2020-12-21. Retrieved 31 January 2021. - ^ a b Castiglioni, Andrea; Rambelli, Fabio; Roth, Carina (2020). Defining Shugendo: Critical Studies on Japanese Mountain Religion, p. 8. Bloomsbury Publishing.
- ^ Gaynor Sekimori, Gaynor. Shugendō And Its Relationship With The Japanese Esoteric Sects: A Study Of The Ritual Calendar Of An Edo Period Shugendō Shrine-Temple Complex, In: Orzech, Charles; Sørensen, Henrik; Payne, Richard (2011). "Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia."
- ^ Groner, Paul (2002). Ryōgen and Mount Hiei: Japanese Tendai in the Tenth Century, p. 208. University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Deal, William E.; Ruppert, Brian (2015). A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism, pp. 100-104. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-6701-7.
- ^ a b Deal, William E.; Ruppert, Brian (2015). A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism, pp. 104-106. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-6701-7.
- ^ a b LaFleur, R. William. Symbol and Yūgen: Shunzei's Use of Tendai Buddhism In "Flowing Traces: Buddhism in the Literary and Visual Arts of Japan," pp. 16-45, edited by James H. Sanford, William R. LaFleur, Masatoshi Nagatomi.
- ^ a b Odin, Steve (2001). Artistic Detachment in Japan and the West: Psychic Distance in Comparative Aesthetics, pp. 107-108. University of Hawaii Press.
References[edit]
- Chappell, David W. (1987). "Is Tendai Buddhism Relevant to the Modern World?", Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1987 14/2–3, pp 247–266.
- Covell, Stephen (2001). "Living Temple Buddhism in Contemporary Japan: The Tendai Sect Today", Comparative Religion Publications. Paper 1. (Dissertation, Western Michigan University)
- Groner, Paul. Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School. University of Hawaii Press 2000.
- Matsunaga, Daigan; Matsunaga, Alicia (1996), Foundation of Japanese Buddhism, Vol. 1: The Aristocratic Age, Los Angeles; Tokyo: Buddhist Books International. ISBN 0-914910-26-4
- Matsunaga, Daigan, Matsunaga, Alicia (1996), Foundation of Japanese Buddhism, Vol. 2: The Mass Movement (Kamakura and Muromachi Periods), Los Angeles; Tokyo: Buddhist Books International, 1996. ISBN 0-914910-28-0
- McMullin, Neil (1984). The Sanmon-Jimon Schism in the Tendai School of Buddhism: A Preliminary Analysis, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7 (1), 83–105
- Stone Jacqueline 1999. Original Enlightenment and the Transformation of Medieval Japanese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI, ISBN 0-8248-2026-6.
- Swanson, Paul L. (1986). "T'ien-t'ai Studies in Japan", Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie 2 (2), 219–232
- Ziporyn, Brook (2004). "Tiantai School" in Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Robert E. Buswell, Ed., McMillan USA, New York, NY, ISBN 0-02-865910-4.
External links[edit]
- A History of Tendai lineages up through the end of the Heian Period, Jodo Shu Research Institute
- Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")
- Enryakuji Hieizan Main Temple of Tendai-shu, Kyoto, Japan
- Tendai Young Buddhist Association Japan
台 宗法 蔵 - Chohoji Wakayama, Japan- Tenryuzanji Trento, Italy
- California Tendai Buddhists California, North America
- Kongosan Eigenji California, North America
- Tendai Buddhist Institute - New York, North America
- Great River Tendai Sangha - Washington, DC, North America
- Tendai UK Hampshire, United Kingdom
- Tendai Buddhism (holding page)