Abstract
The rich fossil record of equids has made them a model for evolutionary processes1. Here we present a 1.12-times coverage draft genome from a horse bone recovered from permafrost dated to approximately 560–780 thousand years before present (kyr bp)2,3. Our data represent the oldest full genome sequence determined so far by almost an order of magnitude. For comparison, we sequenced the genome of a Late Pleistocene horse (43 kyr bp), and modern genomes of five domestic horse breeds (Equus ferus caballus), a Przewalski’s horse (E. f. przewalskii) and a donkey (E. asinus). Our analyses suggest that the Equus lineage giving rise to all contemporary horses, zebras and donkeys originated 4.0–4.5 million years before present (Myr bp), twice the conventionally accepted time to the most recent common ancestor of the genus Equus4,5. We also find that horse population size fluctuated multiple times over the past 2 Myr, particularly during periods of severe climatic changes. We estimate that the Przewalski’s and domestic horse populations diverged 38–72 kyr bp, and find no evidence of recent admixture between the domestic horse breeds and the Przewalski’s horse investigated. This supports the contention that Przewalski’s horses represent the last surviving wild horse population6. We find similar levels of genetic variation among Przewalski’s and domestic populations, indicating that the former are genetically viable and worthy of conservation efforts. We also find evidence for continuous selection on the immune system and olfaction throughout horse evolution. Finally, we identify 29 genomic regions among horse breeds that deviate from neutrality and show low levels of genetic variation compared to the Przewalski’s horse. Such regions could correspond to loci selected early during domestication.
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Accessions
Sequence Read Archive
Data deposits
All sequence data have been submitted to Sequence Read Archive under accession number SRA082086 and are available for download, together with final BAM and VCF files, de novo donkey scaffolds, and proteomic data at http://geogenetics.ku.dk/publications/middle-pleistocene-omics.
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Acknowledgements
We thank T. Brand, the laboratory technicians at the Danish National High-throughput DNA Sequencing Centre and the Illumina sequencing platform at SciLifeLab-Uppsala for technical assistance; J. Clausen for help with the donkey samples; S. Rasmussen for computational assistance; J. N. MacLeod and T. Kalbfleisch for discussions involving the re-sequencing of the horse reference genome; and S. Sawyer for providing published ancient horse data. This work was supported by the Danish Council for Independent Research, Natural Sciences (FNU); the Danish National Research Foundation; the Novo Nordisk Foundation; the Lundbeck Foundation (R52-A5062); a Marie-Curie Career Integration grant (FP7 CIG-293845); the National Science Foundation ARC-0909456; National Science Foundation DBI-0906041; the Searle Scholars Program; King Saud University Distinguished Scientist Fellowship Program (DSFP); Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada; the US National Science Foundation DMR-0923096; and a grant RC2 HG005598 from the National Human Genetics Research Institute (NHGRI). A.G. was supported by a Marie-Curie Intra-European Fellowship (FP7 IEF-299176). M.F. was supported by EMBO Long-Term Post-doctoral Fellowship (ALTF 229-2011). A.-S.M. was supported by a fellowship from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). Mi.S. was supported by the Lundbeck foundation (R82-5062).
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L.O. and E.W. initially conceived and headed the project; G.Z. and Ju.W. headed research at BGI; L.O. and E.W. designed the experimental research project set-up, with input from B.S. and R.N.; D.F. and G.D.Z. provided the Thistle Creek specimen, stratigraphic context and morphological information, with input from K.K.; K.H.R., B.S., K.G., D.C.M., D.F.A., K.A.S.A.-R. and M.F.B. provided samples; L.O., J.T.V., Ma.R., M.H., C.M. and J.S. did ancient and modern DNA extractions and constructed Illumina DNA libraries for shotgun sequencing; Ja.W. did the independent replication in Oxford; Ma.S. did ancient DNA extractions and generated target enrichment sequence data; Ji.M. and X.W. did Illumina libraries on donkey extracts; K.M., C.M. and A.S.-O. performed Illumina sequencing for the Middle Pleistocene and the 43-kyr-old horse genomes, the five domestic horse genomes and the Przewalski’s horse genome at Copenhagen, with input from Mo.R.; Ji.M. and X.W. performed Illumina sequencing for the Middle Pleistocene and the donkey genomes at BGI; J.F.T. headed true Single DNA Molecule Sequencing of the Middle Pleistocene genome; A.G., B.P. and Mi.S. did the mapping analyses and generated genome alignments, with input from L.O. and A.K.; Jo.V. and T.S.-P. did the metagenomic analyses, with input from A.G., B.P., S.B. and L.O.; Jo.V. and T.S.-P. did the ab initio prediction of the donkey genes and the identification of the Y chromosome scaffolds, with input from A.G. and Mi.S.; L.O., A.G. and P.L.F.J. did the damage analyses, with input from I.M.; A.G. did the functional SNP assignment; A.M.V.V. and L.O. did the PCA analyses, with input from O.R.; B.S. did the phylogenetic and Bayesian skyline reconstructions on mitochondrial data; Mi.S. did the phylogenetic and divergence dating based on nuclear data, with input from L.O.; A.G. did the PSMC analyses using data generated by C.J.R. and L.A.; L.O. and A.G. did the population divergence analyses, with input from J.C., R.N. and M.F.; L.O., A.G. and T.K. did the selection scans, with input from A.-S.M. and R.N.; A.A., I.M. and M.F. did the admixture analyses, with input from R.N.; L.O. and A.G. did the analysis of paralogues and structural variation; Ja.V. and A.D. did the amino-acid composition analyses; E.C., C.D.K., D.S., L.J.J. and J.V.O. did the proteomic analyses, with input from M.T.P.G. and A.M.V.V.; L.O. and V.E. performed the morphological analyses, with input from D.F. and G.D.Z.; L.O. and E.W. wrote the manuscript, with critical input from M.H., B.S., Jo.M. and all remaining authors.
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Supplementary Information
This file contains Supplementary Text and Data, Supplementary Figures, Supplementary Tables and additional references (see Contents for details). This file was updated on 3 July 2013 to correctly display figure S1.3 (PDF 20068 kb)
Supplementary Figures
This file contains Supplementary Figures S6.8-S6.38, which show DNA fragmentation and nucleotide misincorporation patterns for mitochondrial reads from other ancient samples analyzed in this study. (PDF 2191 kb)
Supplementary Tables
This zipped file contains Supplementary Tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 5.9, 11.3, 11.4, 11.7 and 12.8. (ZIP 10146 kb)
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Orlando, L., Ginolhac, A., Zhang, G. et al. Recalibrating Equus evolution using the genome sequence of an early Middle Pleistocene horse. Nature 499, 74–78 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12323
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12323
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