Tragedy: Difference between revisions

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'''Tragedy''' (from the {{lang-grc-gre|[[wiktionary:τραγῳδία|τραγῳδία]]}}, ''tragōidia''{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | [[Middle English]] ''tragedie'' < [[Middle French]] ''tragedie'' < [[Latin]] ''tragoedia'' < {{lang-grc|[[wiktionary:τραγῳδία|τραγῳδία]]}}, ''tragōidia''<ref>{{Citation |last=Klein |first=E |title=A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |volume=II L–Z |page=1637 |year=1967 |contribution=Tragedy |publisher=Elsevier |mode=cs1}}</ref>}}) is a genre of [[drama]] based on human [[suffering]] and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a [[tragic hero|main character]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Tragedy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/tragedy-literature |last=Conversi |first=Leonard W. |date=2019 |language=en}}</ref> Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying [[catharsis]], or a "pain [that] awakens pleasure",” for the audience.{{Sfn | Banham | 1998 | p = 1118}}{{Sfn | Nietzsche | 1999 | p = 21 | loc = §2 | ps =: 'two-fold mood[…] the strange mixture and duality in the effects of the [[Dionysus|Dionysiac]] [[Cult of Dionysus|enthusiasts]], that phenomenon whereby pain awakens pleasure while rejoicing wrings cries of agony from the breast. From highest joy there comes a cry of horror or a yearning lament at some irredeemable loss. In those Greek festivals there erupts what one might call a [[Sentimentality|sentimental]] tendency in nature, as if it had cause to sigh over its [[Sparagmos|dismemberment]] into [[Individuation|individuals]]'.}} While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this [[paradox]]ical response, the term ''tragedy'' often refers to a specific [[Poetic tradition|tradition]] of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of [[Western culture|Western civilization]].{{Sfn | Banham | 1998 | p = 1118}}{{Sfn | Williams | 1966 | pp = 14–16}} That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of [[cultural identity]] and historical continuity—"the [[Classical Athens|Greeks]] and the [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethans]], in one cultural form; [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenes]] and Christians, in a common activity," as [[Raymond Williams]] puts it.{{Sfn | Williams | 1966 | p = 16}}

From its origins in the [[theatre of ancient Greece]] 2500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]], as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]; through its singular articulations in the works of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Jean Racine]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]] to the more recent [[Naturalism (theatre)|naturalistic]] tragedy of [[Henrik Ibsen]] and [[August Strindberg]]; [[Samuel Beckett]]'s [[Modernism|modernist]] meditations on death, loss and suffering; [[Heiner Müller]] [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.{{Sfn | Williams | 1966 | pp = 13–84}}{{Sfn | Taxidou | 2004 | pp = 193–209}} A long line of [[philosophers]]—which includes [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], [[Voltaire]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Walter Benjamin|Benjamin]],{{Sfn | Benjamin | 1998}} [[Albert Camus|Camus]], [[Jacques Lacan|Lacan]], and [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze]]{{Sfn | Deleuze | Guattari | 2004}}—have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.{{Sfn | Felski | 2008 | p = 1}}{{Sfn | Dukore | 1974 | ps =: primary material.}}{{Sfn | Carlson | 1993 | ps =: analysis.}}

In the wake of Aristotle's ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against [[Epic poetry|epic]] and [[Lyric poetry|lyric]]) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]]). In the [[Modernity|modern]] era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, [[melodrama]], [[Tragicomedy|the tragicomic]], and [[epic theatre]].{{Sfn | Carlson | 1993 | ps =: analysis.}}{{Sfn | Pfister | 1988}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elam |first=Keir |title=The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama |date=1980 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=9780416720501}}</ref> Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-[[Genre|generic]] [[deterritorialization|deterritorialisation]] from the [[Nineteenth century theatre|mid-19th century]] onwards. Both [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Augusto Boal]] define their epic theatre projects ([[non-Aristotelian drama]] and [[Theatre of the Oppressed]], respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.{{Sfn | Taxidou | 2004 | pp = 193–209}}

Writing in 335 BCE (long after the [[Age of Pericles|Golden Age]] of [[Classical Greece|5th-century]] [[Classical Athens|Athenian]] tragedy), [[Aristotle]] provides the earliest- surviving explanation for the origin of the dramatic [[The arts|art form]] in his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', in which he argues that tragedy developed from the [[improvisation]]s of the leader of [[Greek chorus|choral]] [[dithyramb]]s ([[hymn]]s sung and danced in praise of [[Dionysos]], the god of wine and fertility):{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 13}}

Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Andrew |title=The Cambridge Guide to Theatre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-521-43437-8 |editor-last=Banham |editor-first=Martin |edition=Revised |location=Cambridge |page=441 |chapter=Greece, Ancient |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cartledge |first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-42351-1 |editor-last=Easterling |editor-first=P. E. |series=Cambridge Companions to Literature series |location=Cambridge |pages=3–5 |chapter='Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life}}</ref>{{Sfn | Goldhill | 1997 | p = 54}}{{Sfn | Ley | 2007 | p = 206}}{{Sfn | Styan | 2000 | p = 140}}{{Sfn | Taxidou | 2004 | p = 104 | ps =: "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".}} Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 32–3}}{{Sfn | Brown | 1998 | p = 444}}{{Sfn | Cartledge | 1997 | pp = 3–5, 33 | ps =: [although [[Classical Athens|Athenians]] of the 4th century judged [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]] "as the nonpareils of the genre, and regularly honored their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived [[Fifth-century Athens|golden age]]. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the [[Athenian democracy|democracy]]—and beyond it".}} No tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in the 5th century have survived.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 15}}{{Sfn | Kovacs | 2005 | p = 379}}{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have the ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]''—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Euripides |title=Plays VI |publisher=Methuen |others=J. Michael Walton, introduction |year=1997 |isbn=0-413-71650-3 |series=Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists |location=London |pages=viii, xix |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/playssix0000euri/page/}}</ref> This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.}} We have complete texts [[Extant literature|extant]] by [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 15}}{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | The theory that ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' was not written by [[Aeschylus]] adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.}} Aeschylus' ''[[The Persians]]'' is recognized to be the earliest extant Greek tragedy, and as such it is doubly unique among the extant ancient dramas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Thomas |title=The emptiness of Asia : Aeschylus' 'Persians' and the history of the fifth century |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |location=London |isbn=9781350113411 |page=13}}</ref>

Following the expansion of the [[Roman Republic]] (509–27 BCE) into several Greek territories between 270 and 240 BCE, Rome encountered [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek tragedy]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 43}} From the later years of the republic and by means of the [[Roman Empire]] (27 BCE-476 CE), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and even reached Britain.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 36, 47}} While Greek tragedy continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BCE marks the beginning of regular [[Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman drama]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 43}}{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see [[:Category:Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights|the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia]].}} [[Livius Andronicus]] began to write Roman tragedies, thus creating some of the first important works of [[Latin literature|Roman literature]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 47}} Five years later, [[Gnaeus Naevius]] also began to write tragedies (though he was more appreciated for his comedies).{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 47}} No complete early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three other early tragic playwrights—[[Quintus Ennius]], [[Marcus Pacuvius]] and [[Lucius Accius]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 49}}

From the time of the empire, the tragedies of two playwrights survive—one is an unknown author, while the other is the [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]] [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 50}} Nine of [[Senecan tragedy|Seneca's tragedies]] survive, all of which are ''fabula crepidata'' (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his ''[[Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra]]'', for example, was based on [[Euripides]]' ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]''.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 49–50}} Historians do not know who wrote the only [[Extant literature|extant]] example of the ''fabula praetexta'' (tragedies based on Roman subjects), ''[[Octavia (play)|Octavia]]'', but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 50}}

From about 1500 printed copies, in the original languages, of the works of [[Sophocles]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], and [[Euripides]], as well as comedic writers such as [[Aristophanes]], [[Terence]] and [[Plautus]], were available in Europe and the next forty years saw [[Humanism|humanists]] and poets translating and adapting their tragedies. In the 1540s, the European university setting (and especially, from 1553 on, the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theatre (in Latin) written by scholars. The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in its humanist tragedy. His plays, with their ghosts, lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory, brought a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action to many humanist tragedies.

The most important sources for French tragic theatre in the Renaissance were the example of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and the precepts of [[Horace]] and [[Aristotle]] (and contemporary commentaries by [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]] and [[Lodovico Castelvetro]]), although plots were taken from classical authors such as [[Plutarch]], [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], etc., from the Bible, from contemporary events and from short story collections (Italian, French and Spanish). The Greek tragic authors ([[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]]) would become increasingly important as models by the middle of the 17th century. Important models were also supplied by the [[Spanish Golden Age]] playwrights [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Tirso de Molina]] and [[Lope de Vega]], many of whose works were translated and adapted for the French stage.

Contemporary with Shakespeare, an entirely different approach to facilitating the rebirth of tragedy was taken in Italy. [[Jacopo Peri]], in the preface to his ''[[Euridice (Peri)|Euridice]]'' refers to "the ancient Greeks and Romans (who in the opinion of many sang their staged tragedies throughout in representing them on stage)."{{Sfn | Headington | Westbrook | Barfoot | 1991 | p = 22}} The attempts of Peri and his contemporaries to recreate ancient tragedy gave rise to the new Italian musical genre of opera. In France, tragic operatic works from the time of [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] to about that of [[Christoph Willibald Gluck|Gluck]] were not called opera, but ''tragédie en musique'' ("tragedy in music") or some similar name; the ''tragédie en musique'' is regarded as a distinct musical genre.<ref name="grove">{{Cite journal |last=Sadler |first=Graham |date=2001 |title=Tragédie en musique |url=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044040 |journal=Grove Music Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.44040 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-date=13 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413032000/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044040 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some later operatic composers have also shared Peri's aims: [[Richard Wagner]]'s concept of ''[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]'' ("integrated work of art"), for example, was intended as a return to the ideal of Greek tragedy in which all the arts were blended in service of the drama.{{Sfn | Headington | Westbrook | Barfoot | 1991 | p = 178}} [[Nietzsche]], in his ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'' (1872) was to support Wagner in his claims to be a successor of the ancient dramatists.

Numerous books and plays continue to be written in the tradition of tragedy to this day examples include ''[[Froth on the Daydream]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sallis |first=James |date=4 May 2008 |title='The Dead All Have the Same Skin' by Boris Vian |url=https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.latimes.com |quote=His great novel, "L'Écume des jours" ("Foam of the Daze"), is a tragedy of young love in which a woman dies of the lily growing in her lung. |archive-date=27 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127152626/https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chapple |first=Tobias |title=Books in Review: Froth on the Daydream by Boris Vian |url=https://www.litro.co.uk/2014/08/books-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.litro.co.uk |quote=The characters aren't meant to be real. But it's also devastating when the novel central tragedy strikes – that all too real feeling of an unjust world that takes away as easily as it gives, and of people trying as hard as they can to be happy despite it. |archive-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405214540/https://www.litro.co.uk/2014/08/books-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Road]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bernier |first=Kathy |date=3 December 2016 |title=REVIEW: 'The Road' Is A Gripping Prepper Novel Full Of Tragedy, Struggle And Hope |url=https://www.offthegridnews.com/extreme-survival/review-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.offthegridnews.com |archive-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223164734/http://www.offthegridnews.com/extreme-survival/review-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Fault in Our Stars]]'', ''[[Fat City (novel)|Fat City]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Meehan |first=Ryan |title=The Frontiers of American Tragedy |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2009/9/4/the-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.thecrimson.com |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809111324/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2009/9/4/the-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Rabbit Hole (play)|Rabbit Hole]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2009 |title=Young boy's death drives tragedy of 'Rabbit Hole' |url=https://www.ocregister.com/2009/11/18/young-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.ocregister.com |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711021954/https://www.ocregister.com/2009/11/18/young-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bustin |first=Jeremy |title=BWW Review: Cadence Theatre's RABBIT HOLE Examines Life After Tragedy |url=https://www.broadwayworld.com/norfolk/article/BWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505 |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.broadwayworld.com |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711021952/https://www.broadwayworld.com/norfolk/article/BWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Requiem for a Dream (novel)|Requiem for a Dream]]'', ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMq2Cirr4AC&q=handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA45 |title=Tragedy in Transition |date=15 April 2008 |isbn=9780470691304 |page=45 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMq2Cirr4AC&q=handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA45 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEBvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22handmaid%27s+tale%22+kevin+taylor&pg=PT287 |title=Christ the Tragedy of God: A Theological Exploration of Tragedy |date=21 September 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781351607834 |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEBvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22handmaid%27s+tale%22+kevin+taylor&pg=PT287 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kendrick |first=Tom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEomBiT6d9IC&q=the+handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA148 |title=Margaret Atwood's Textual Assassinations: Recent Poetry and Fiction |year=2003 |isbn=9780814209295 |page=148 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=cEomBiT6d9IC&q=the+handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA148 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stray |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdXUAAAAQBAJ&q=Torn+by+Desire:+Sparagmos+in+Greek+Tragedy+and+Recent+Fiction+%22Handmaid%27s+tale%22&pg=PA78 |title=Remaking the Classics: Literature, Genre and Media in Britain 1800–2000 |date=16 October 2013 |isbn=9781472538604 |page=78 |publisher=A&C Black |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093404/https://books.google.com/books?id=jdXUAAAAQBAJ&q=Torn+by+Desire:+Sparagmos+in+Greek+Tragedy+and+Recent+Fiction+%22Handmaid%27s+tale%22&pg=PA78 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to Aristotle, "the structure of the best tragedy should not be simple but complex and one that represents incidents arousing [[fear]] and [[pity]]—for that is peculiar to this form of art."{{sfn|Aristotle|1932|loc=Section 1452b}} This reversal of fortune must be caused by the tragic hero's ''[[hamartia]]'', which is often translated as either a [[character flaw]], or as a mistake (since the original Greek etymology traces back to ''hamartanein'', a sporting term that refers to an [[archery|archer]] or [[spear]]-thrower missing his target).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rorty |first=Amelie Oksenberg |title=Essays on Aristotle's Poetics |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1992 |page=178}}</ref> According to Aristotle, "The misfortune is brought about not by [general] vice or depravity, but by some [particular] error or frailty."<ref>''Poetics'', Aristotle</ref>{{Nonspecific|date=September 2022}} The reversal is the inevitable but unforeseen result of some action taken by the hero. It is also a misconception that this reversal can be brought about by a higher power (e.g. the law, the gods, [[destiny|fate]], or society), but if a character's downfall is brought about by an external cause, Aristotle describes this as a [[Accident|misadventure]] and not a tragedy.{{sfn|Aristotle|1932|loc=Section 1135b}}

* {{Citation |last=Goldhill |first=Simon |title=The audience of Athenian tragedy |date=2 October 1997-10-02 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9780511998928A007/type/book_part |work=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy |pages=54–68 |editor-last=Easterling |editor-first=P. E. |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/ccol0521412455.003 |isbn=978-0-521-41245-2 |mode=cs1 }}

{{commons category|Tragedies}}