Japanese martial arts
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Japanese martial arts refers to the variety of martial arts native to the country of Japan. At least three Japanese terms (budō, bujutsu, and bugei) are used interchangeably with the English phrase Japanese martial arts.
The usage of the term budō (
Term | Translation |
---|---|
budō ( |
martial way[3][4][5] |
bujutsu ( |
martial technique alternatively science, art or craft of war |
bugei ( |
martial art |
History[edit]
The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the samurai and the caste system that restricted the use of weapons by other members of society. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills.
Ordinarily, the development of combative techniques is intertwined with the tools used to execute those techniques. In a rapidly changing world, those tools are constantly changing, requiring that the techniques to use them be continuously reinvented. The history of Japan is somewhat unusual in its relative isolation. Compared with the rest of the world, the Japanese tools of war evolved slowly. Many people believe that this afforded the warrior class the opportunity to study their weapons in greater depth than other cultures. Nevertheless, the teaching and training of these martial arts did evolve. For example, in the early medieval period, the bow and the spear were emphasized, but during the Tokugawa period (1603–1867 CE), fewer large-scale battles took place, and the sword became the most prestigious weapon. Another trend that developed throughout Japanese history was that of increasing martial specialization as society became more stratified over time.[6]
The martial arts developed or originating in Japan are extraordinarily diverse, with vast differences in training tools, methods, and philosophy across innumerable schools and styles. That said, Japanese martial arts may generally be divided into koryū and gendai budō based on whether they existed prior to or after the Meiji Restoration (1868), respectively.[citation needed] Since gendai budō and koryū often share the same historical origin,[citation needed] one will find various types of martial arts (such as jujutsu, kenjutsu, or naginatajutsu) on both sides of the divide.
- A note on the organization of this article; it would be impossible to discuss Japanese martial arts in terms of the thousands of individual schools or styles, such as Ittō-ryū, Daitō-ryū, or Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū. Instead, major sections are divided based on when the art originated (regardless of whether it is still practiced), and subsections are dedicated to the root type of martial art, such as jujutsu (the art of empty-handed combat through use of indirect application of force) or kendo (Japanese sport fencing), wherein notable styles or major differences between styles may be discussed.
Koryū bujutsu[edit]
Koryū (
The term also is used generally to indicate that a particular style or art is "traditional", rather than "modern". However, what it means for an art to be either "traditional" or "modern" is subject to some debate. As a rule of thumb, the primary purpose of a koryū martial art was for use in war. The most extreme example of a koryū school is one that preserves its traditional, and often ancient, martial practices even in the absence of continuing wars in which to test them. Other koryū schools may have made modifications to their practices that reflect the passage of time (which may or may not have resulted in the loss of "koryū" status in the eyes of its peers). This is as opposed to "modern" martial arts, whose primary focus is generally upon the self-improvement (mental, physical, or spiritual) of the individual practitioner, with varying degrees of emphasis on the practical application of the martial art for either sport or self-defence purposes.[citation needed]
The following subsections represent not individual schools of martial arts, but rather generic "types" of martial arts. These are generally distinguishable on the basis of their training methodology and equipment, though wide variation still exists within each.
Sumo[edit]
Sumo (
Today, sumo retains much of its traditional trappings, including a referee dressed as a Shintō priest, and a ritual where the competitors clap hands, stomp their feet, and throw salt in the ring prior to each match. To win a match, competitors employ throwing and grappling techniques to force the other man to the ground; the first man to touch the ground with a part of the body other than the bottom of the feet, or touch the ground outside the ring with any part of the body, loses. Six grand tournaments are held annually in Japan, and each professional fighter's name and relative ranking is published after each tournament in an official list, called the banzuke, which is followed religiously by sumo fans.
Jujutsu[edit]
Jujutsu (
Methods of combat included striking (kicking, punching), throwing (body throws, joint-lock throws, unbalance throws), restraining (pinning, strangulating, grappling, wrestling) and weaponry. Defensive tactics included blocking, evading, off balancing, blending and escaping. Minor weapons such as the tantō (
Most of these were battlefield-based systems to be practiced as companion arts to the more common and vital weapon systems. At the time, these fighting arts went by many different names, including kogusoku, yawara, kumiuchi, and hakuda. In reality, these grappling systems were not really unarmed systems of combat, but are more accurately described as means whereby an unarmed or lightly armed warrior could defeat a heavily armed and armored enemy on the battlefield. Ideally, the samurai would be armed and would not need to rely on such techniques.[citation needed]
In later times, other koryū developed into systems more familiar to the practitioners of the jujutsu commonly seen today. These systems are generally designed to deal with opponents neither wearing armor nor in a battlefield environment. For this reason, they include extensive use of atemi waza (
Today, jujutsu is practiced in many forms, both ancient and modern. Various methods of jujutsu have been incorporated or synthesized into judo and aikido, as well as being exported throughout the world and transformed into sport wrestling systems, adopted in whole or part by schools of karate or other unrelated martial arts, still practiced as they were centuries ago, or all of the above.
Swordsmanship[edit]
Swordsmanship, the art of the sword, has an almost mythological ethos, and is believed by some to be the paramount martial art, surpassing all others. Regardless of the truth of that belief, the sword itself has been the subject of stories and legends through virtually all cultures in which it has been employed as a tool for violence. In Japan, the use of the katana is no different. Although originally the most important skills of the warrior class were proficiency at horse-riding and shooting the bow, this eventually gave way to swordsmanship. The earliest swords, which can be dated as far back as the Kofun era (3rd and 4th centuries) were primarily straight bladed. According to legend, curved swords made strong by the famous folding process were first forged by the smith Amakuni Yasutsuna (
The primary development of the sword occurred between 987 AD and 1597 AD. This development is characterized by profound artistry during peaceful eras, and renewed focus on durability, utility, and mass production during the intermittent periods of warfare, most notably civil warfare during the 12th century and the Mongolian invasions during the 13th century (which in particular saw the transition from mostly horseback archery to hand-to-hand ground fighting).
This development of the sword is paralleled by the development of the methods used to wield it. During times of peace, the warriors trained with the sword, and invented new ways to implement it. During war, these theories were tested. After the war ended, those who survived examined what worked and what didn't, and passed their knowledge on. In 1600 AD, Tokugawa Ieyasu (
The terminology used in Japanese swordsmanship is somewhat ambiguous. Many names have been used for various aspects of the art or to encompass the art as a whole.
Kenjutsu[edit]
Kenjutsu (
Battōjutsu[edit]
Battōjutsu (
Iaijutsu[edit]
Iaijutsu (
Naginatajutsu[edit]
Naginatajutsu (
However, many koryu maintain naginatajutsu in their curriculum. Also of note, during the late Edo period, naginata were used to train women and ladies in waiting. Thus, most naginatajutsu styles are headed by women and most naginata practitioners in Japan are women. This has led to the impression overseas that naginatajutsu is a martial art that was not used by male warriors. In fact, naginatajutsu was developed in early medieval Japan and for a time was widely used by samurai.[citation needed]
Sōjutsu[edit]
Sōjutsu (
Shinobi no jutsu[edit]
Shinobi no jutsu (aka Ninjutsu) was developed by groups of people mainly from Iga, Mie and Kōka, Shiga of Japan who became noted for their skills as infiltrators, scouts, secret agents, and spies. The training of these shinobi (
Other koryū martial arts[edit]
The early martial art schools of Japan were almost entirely "Sōgō bujutsu", composite martial systems made up of an eclectic collection of skills and tools. With the long peace of the Tokugawa shogunate there was an increase in specialization with many schools identifying themselves with particular major battlefield weapons. However, there were many additional weapons employed by the warriors of feudal Japan, and an art to wielding each. Usually they were studied as secondary or tertiary weapons within a school but there are exceptions, such as the art of wielding the short staff, (jōdō;
Other arts existed to teach military skills other than the use of weaponry. Examples of these include marine skills such as swimming and river-fording (suijutsu;
Gendai budō[edit]
Gendai budō (
The core difference is, as was explained under "koryū", above, that koryū arts are practiced as they were when their primary utility was for use in warfare, while the primary purpose of gendai budō is for self-improvement, with self-defense as a secondary purpose. Additionally, many of the gendai budō have included a sporting element to them. Judo and kendo are both examples of this.
Judo[edit]
Judo (
Judo was created by Kano Jigoro (
Judo became an Olympic sport in 1964, and has spread throughout the world. Kano Jigoro's original school, the "Kodokan", has students worldwide, and many other schools have been founded by Kano's students.
Kendo[edit]
Kendo (
Today, virtually the entire[citation needed] practice of kendo is governed by the All Japan Kendo Federation, founded in 1951. Competitions are judged by points, with the first competitor to score two points on their opponent declared the winner. One point may be scored with a successful and properly executed strike to any of several targets: a thrust to the throat, or a strike to the top of the head, sides of the head, sides of the body, or forearms. Practitioners also compete in forms (kata) competitions, using either wooden or blunted metal swords, according to a set of forms promulgated by the AJKF.[citation needed]
Iaidō[edit]
Iaidō (
Aikido[edit]
Aikido (
Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu incorporating training movements such as those for the yari (
Kyūdō[edit]
Kyūdō (
However, from the 16th century onward, firearms slowly displaced the bow as the dominant battlefield weapon. As the bow lost its significance as a weapon of war, and under the influence of Buddhism, Shinto, Daoism and Confucianism, Japanese archery evolved into kyudō, the “way of the bow". In some schools kyudō is practiced as a highly refined contemplative practice, while in other schools it is practiced as a sport.
Karate[edit]
Karate (
Karate originated in and, is technically, Okinawan, except for Kyokushin (an amalgamation of parts of Shotokan and Gojoryu), formerly known as the Ryūkyū Kingdom, but now a part of present-day Japan. Karate is a fusion of pre-existing Okinawan martial arts, called "te", and Chinese martial arts. It is an art that has been adopted and developed by practitioners on the Japanese main island of Honshu.
Karate's route to Honshu began with Gichin Funakoshi (
Karate practice is primarily characterized by linear punching and kicking techniques executed from a stable, fixed stance. Many styles of karate practiced today incorporate the forms (kata) originally developed by Funakoshi and his teachers and many different weapons traditionally concealed as farm implements by the peasants of Okinawa. Many karate practitioners also participate in light- and no-contact competitions while some (ex. kyokushin karate) still compete in full-contact competitions with little or no protective gear.
Shorinji Kempo[edit]
Shorinji Kempo (
Although Shorinji Kempo was originally introduced in Japan in the late 1940s and 1950s through large scale programmes involving employees of major national organizations (e.g. Japan Railways) it subsequently became popular in many other countries. Today, according to the World Shorinji Kempo Organization (WSKO),[9] there are almost 1.5 million practitioners in 33 countries.
Philosophical and strategic concepts[edit]
Aiki[edit]
The principle of aiki (
Historically, this principle was used for destructive purposes; to seize an advantage and kill one's opponent. The modern art of aikido is founded upon the principle that the control of the opponent achieved by the successful application of aiki may be used to defeat one's opponent without harming them.
Attitude[edit]
Kokoro (
The ultimate aim of Karate lies not in victory or defeat, but in the perfection of the character of its participants.
Budō[edit]
A Japanese term for martial art, literally "martial way".[11][12][13]
Bushidō[edit]
A code of honor for samurai way of life, in principle similar to chivalry but culturally very different. Literally "the way of the warrior", those dedicated to Bushido have exemplary skill with a sword or bow, and can withstand great pain and discomfort. It emphasizes courage, bravery, and loyalty to their lord (daimyō) above all.
Courtesy[edit]
Words that I have often heard are that "everything begins with rei and ends with rei". The word itself, however, can be interpreted in several ways; it is the rei of reigi meaning "etiquette, courtesy, politeness" and it is also the rei of keirei, "salutation" or "bow". The meaning of rei is sometimes explained in terms of kata or katachi ("formal exercises" and "form" or "shape"). It is of prime importance not only in karate but in all modern martial arts. For the purpose in modern martial arts, let us understand rei as the ceremonial bow in which courtesy and decorum are manifest. He who would follow the way of karate must be courteous, not only in training but in daily life. While humble and gentle, he should never be servile. His performance of the kata should reflect boldness and confidence. This seemingly paradoxical combination of boldness and gentleness leads ultimately to harmony. It is true, as Master Funakoshi used to say, that the spirit of karate would be lost without courtesy.
Kiai[edit]
A term describing 'fighting spirit'.[citation needed] In practical use this often refers to the scream or shout made during an attack, used for proper breathing as well as debilitating or distracting the enemy.
Hard and soft methods[edit]
There are two underlying strategic methodologies to the application of force in Japanese martial arts. One is the hard method (
The hard method is characterized by the direct application of counter-force to an opposing force. In practice, this may be a direct attack, consisting of movement directly towards the opponent, coinciding with a strike towards the opponent. A defensive technique where the defender stands their ground to block or parry (directly opposing the attack by stopping it or knocking it aside) would be an example of a hard method of defense. Hard method techniques are generally conceptualized as being linear.
The soft method is characterized by the indirect application of force, which either avoids or redirects the opposing force. For example, receiving an attack by slipping past it, followed by adding force to the attacker's limb for the purpose of unbalancing an attacker is an example of soft method. Soft method techniques are generally conceptualized as being circular.
These definitions give rise to the often illusory distinction between "hard-style" and "soft-style" martial arts. In truth, most styles technically practice both, regardless of their internal nomenclature. Analyzing the difference in accordance with yin and yang principles, philosophers would assert that the absence of either one would render the practitioner's skills unbalanced or deficient, as yin and yang alone are each only half of a whole.
Openings, initiative and timing[edit]
Openings, initiative, and timing are deeply interrelated concepts applicable to self-defense and competitive combat. They each denote different considerations relevant to successfully initiating or countering an attack.
Openings (
In Japanese martial arts, "initiative" (
All of the above concepts are integrated into the idea of the combat interval or timing (
The Three Attacks
- Go no sen: meaning “late attack” involves a defensive or counter movement in response to an attack.[18]
- Sen no sen: a defensive initiative launched simultaneously with the attack of the opponent.[18]
- Sensen no sen: an initiative launched in anticipation of an attack where the opponent is fully committed to their attack and thus psychologically beyond the point of no return.[18]
Shuhari[edit]
The principle of Shuhari describes the three stages of learning.
States of mind: empty, immovable, remaining, and beginner's[edit]
Pedagogy[edit]
Schools[edit]
Literally meaning "flow" in Japanese, a ryū is a particular school of an art.[citation needed]
Instructors[edit]
Sensei (
Seniors and juniors[edit]
The relationship between senior students (
Ranking systems[edit]
There are ultimately two ranking systems in the Japanese martial arts, although some schools have been known to blend these two together. The older system, usual prior to 1868, was based a series of licenses or menkyo. There were generally very few levels culminating in the license of total transmission (menkyo kaiden;
In the modern system, first introduced in the martial arts through judo, students progress by promotion through a series of grades (kyū), followed by a series of degrees (dan), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some arts use only white and black belts to distinguish between levels, while others use a progression of colored belts for kyū levels.
Forms[edit]
It has often been said that forms (kata) are the backbone of the martial arts. Nevertheless, different schools and styles put a varying amount of emphasis upon their practice.
See also[edit]
Sources[edit]
- Hall, David A. Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts. Kodansha USA, 2012. ISBN 978-1568364100.
References[edit]
- ^ Green, Thomas (2001). Martial Arts of the World: Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 56–58. ISBN 978-1576071502.
- ^ a b Mol, Serge (2001). Classical Fighting Arts of Japan: A Complete Guide to Koryū Jūjutsu. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha International, Ltd. p. 69. ISBN 4-7700-2619-6.
- ^ Armstrong, Hunter B. (1995). The Koryu Bujutsu Experience in Kory Bujutsu - Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan. New Jersey: Koryu Books. pp. 19–20. ISBN 1-890536-04-0.
- ^ Dreager, Donn F. (1974). Modern Bujutsu & Budo - The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan. New York/Tokyo: Weatherhill. p. 11. ISBN 0-8348-0351-8.
- ^ Friday, Karl F. (1997). Legacies of the Sword. Hawai: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-8248-1847-4.
- ^ Oscar Ratti; Adele Westbrook (15 July 1991). Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-1684-7. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
- ^ Skoss, Diane (2006-05-09). "A Koryu Primer". Koryu Books. Retrieved 2007-01-01.
- ^ Warner, Gordon; Draeger, Donn F. (2005). Japanese Swordsmanship. Weatherhill. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-8348-0236-8.
- ^ "World Shorinji Kempo Organization". World Shorinji Kempo Organization. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
- ^ Ribner, Susan; Richard Chin (1978). The Martial Arts. New York: Harper & Row. p. 95. ISBN 0-06-024999-4.
- ^ Morgan, Diane (2001). The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion. New York: Renaissance Books. p. 38.
- ^ Armstrong, Hunter B. (1995). The Koryu Bujutsu Experience in Kory Bujutsu - Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan. New Jersey: Koryu Books. pp. 19–20. ISBN 1-890536-04-0.
- ^ Green, Thomas A. and Joseph R. Svinth (2010) Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation. Santa Barbara: ACB-CLIO. Page 390. ISBN 978-1-59884-243-2
- ^ Shigeru, Egami (1976). The Heart of Karate-Do. Tokyo: Kodansha International. p. 17. ISBN 0-87011-816-1.
- ^ Hyams, Joe (1979). Zen in the Martial Arts. New York, NY: Penguin Putnam, Inc. p. 58. ISBN 0-87477-101-3.
- ^ a b Lowry, Dave (March 1998). "Sen (Taking the Initiative)". The Karate Way (column). Black Belt. Vol. 26, no. 3. p. 92.
- ^ Jones, Todd D. "Angular Attack Theory: An Aikido Perspective". Aikido Journal. Archived from the original on 2009-01-22.
- ^ a b c Pranin, Stanley (2007). "Exploring the Founder's Aikido". Aikido Journal. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
- ^ Lowry, Dave (1984). "Senpai and Kohai (Seniors and Juniors)". Karate Illustrated.