Sake
Type | Alcoholic beverage |
---|---|
Country of origin | Japan |
Alcohol by volume | 15–22% |
Ingredients | Rice, water, kōji-kin (Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus kawachii or Aspergillus luchuensis[1][a]), yeast |
Sake or saké (
The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer, where the conversion from starch to sugar and then from sugar to alcohol occurs in two distinct steps. Like other rice wines, when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. The alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer; while most beer contains 3–9% ABV, wine generally contains 9–16% ABV,[7] and undiluted sake contains 18–20% ABV (although this is often lowered to about 15% by diluting with water before bottling).
In Japanese, the character sake (kanji:
In Japan, where it is the national beverage, sake is often served with special ceremony, where it is gently warmed in a small earthenware or porcelain bottle and sipped from a small porcelain cup called a sakazuki. As with wine, the recommended serving temperature of sake varies greatly by type.
Sake now enjoys an international reputation. Of the more than 800 junmai ginjō-shu evaluated by Robert Parker's team, 78 received a score of 90 or more (eRobertParker, 2016).[8]
History[edit]
Until the Kamakura period[edit]
The origin of sake is unclear; however, the method of fermenting rice into alcohol spread to Japan from China around 500BCE.[9] The earliest reference to the use of alcohol in Japan is recorded in the Book of Wei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms. This 3rd-century Chinese text speaks of Japanese drinking and dancing.[10]
Alcoholic beverages (
In the Heian period (794–1185), sake was used for religious ceremonies, court festivals, and drinking games.[11] Sake production was a government monopoly for a long time, but in the 10th century, Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines began to brew sake, and they became the main centers of production for the next 500 years.
Muromachi period[edit]
Before the 1440s in the Muromachi period (1333-1573), the Buddhist temple Shōryaku-ji invented various innovative methods for making sake. Because these production methods are the origin of the basic production methods for sake brewing today, Shoryakuji is often said to be the birthplace of seishu (
A huge tub (ja:
In the 16th century, the technique of distillation was introduced into the Kyushu district from Ryukyu.[10] The brewing of shōchū, called "Imo–sake" started and was sold at the central market in Kyoto.
Edo period[edit]
By the Genroku era (1688–1704) of the Edo period (1603–1867), a brewing method called hashira jōchū (
The Nada-Gogō area in Hyōgo Prefecture, the largest producer of modern sake, was formed during this period. When the population of Edo, modern-day Tokyo, began to grow rapidly in the early 1600s, brewers who made sake in inland areas such as Fushimi, Itami, and Ikeda moved to the Nada-Gogō area on the coast, where the weather and water quality were perfect for brewing sake and convenient for shipping it to Edo. In the Genroku era, when the culture of the chōnin class, the common people, prospered, the consumption of sake increased rapidly, and large quantities of taruzake (
During this period, frequent natural disasters and bad weather caused rice shortages, and the Tokugawa shogunate issued sake brewing restrictions 61 times.[23] In the early Edo period, there was a sake brewing technique called shiki jōzō (
In the 18th century, Engelbert Kaempfer[25] and Isaac Titsingh[26] published accounts identifying sake as a popular alcoholic beverage in Japan, but Titsingh was the first to try to explain and describe the process of sake brewing. The work of both writers was widely disseminated throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century.[27]
From the Meiji era to the early Shōwa era[edit]
Starting around the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912), the technique for making sake began to develop rapidly. Breeding was actively carried out in various parts of Japan to produce sake rice optimized for sake brewing. Ise Nishiki developed in 1860, Omachi (ja:
In Japan, sake has long been taxed by the national government. In 1878, the liquor tax accounted for 12.3% of the national tax revenue, excluding local taxes, and in 1888 it was 26.4%, and in 1899 it was 38.8%, finally surpassing the land tax of 35.6%.[23] In 1899, the government banned home brewing in anticipation of financial pressure from the First Sino-Japanese War and in preparation for the Russo-Japanese War. Since home-brewed sake is tax-free, the logic was that by banning the home-brewing of sake, sales would increase, and more tax revenue would be collected. This was the end of home-brewed sake.[30] The Meiji government adopted a system in which taxes were collected when sake was finished, instead of levying taxes on the amount and price of sake at the time of sale to ensure more revenue from liquor taxes. The liquor tax for the sake produced in a given year had to be paid to the government during that fiscal year, so the breweries tried to make money by selling the sake as soon as possible. This destroyed the market for aged koshu, which had been popular until then, and it was only in 1955 that sake breweries began to make koshu again.[23]
When World War II brought rice shortages, the sake-brewing industry was hampered as the government discouraged the use of rice for brewing. As early as the late 17th century, it had been discovered that small amounts of distilled alcohol could be added to sake before pressing to extract aromas and flavors from the rice solids. During the war, large amounts of distilled alcohol and glucose were added to small quantities of rice mash, increasing the yield by as much as four times. A few breweries were producing "sake" that contained no rice. The quality of sake during this time varied considerably. Incidentally, as of 2022, so much distilled alcohol is not allowed to be added, and under the provisions of the Liquor Tax Act, 50% of the weight of rice is the upper limit for the most inexpensive sake classified as futsū-shu.[31]
Since the mid-Showa era[edit]
After the war, the breweries gradually recovered and the quality of sake steadily improved, and there were various innovations in sake brewing. The term ginzō (
In 1973, the National Tax Agency's brewing research institute developed kijōshu (
New players on the scene—beer, wine, and spirits—became popular in Japan, and in the 1960s, beer consumption surpassed sake for the first time. Sake consumption continued to decrease while the quality of sake steadily improved. While the rest of the world may be drinking more sake and the quality of sake has been increasing, sake production in Japan has been declining since the mid-1970s.[35] The number of sake breweries is also declining. While there were 3,229 breweries nationwide in fiscal 1975, the number had fallen to 1,845 in 2007.[36] In recent years, exports have rapidly increased due to the growing popularity of sake worldwide. The value of sake exports in 2022 was more than six times that of 2009.[37] As of 2022, the value of Japan's alcoholic beverage exports was approximately 139.2 billion yen, with Japanese whisky in first place at 56.1 billion yen and sake in second place at 47.5 billion yen.[38] Today, sake has become a world beverage with a few breweries in China, Southeast Asia, South America, North America, and Australia.[39]
In addition to Aspergillus oryzae (yellow kōji), Aspergillus kawachii (white kōji) and Aspergillus luchuensis (black kōji), which are used to brew shōchū and awamori, have been used to brew sake since the 21st century.[1]
More breweries are also turning to older methods of production. For example, since the 21st century, the use of wooden tubs has increased again due to the development of sanitary techniques. The use of wooden tubs for fermentation has the advantage of allowing various microorganisms living in the wood to affect sake, allowing more complex fermentation and producing sake with different characteristics. It is also known that the antioxidants contained in wood have a positive effect on sake.[40][41]
Oldest sake brewery[edit]
The oldest sake brewing company still in operation, as confirmed by historical documents, is the Sudo Honke in Kasama, Ibaraki, founded in 1141 during the Heian Period (794–1185).[42] Sudō Honke was also the first sake brewery to sell both namazake and hiyaoroshi. Hiyaoroshi refers to sake that is finished in winter, pasteurized once in early spring, stored and aged for a little while during the summer, and shipped in the fall without being pasteurized a second time.[43]
In terms of excavated archaeological evidence, the oldest known sake brewery is from the 15th century near an area that was owned by Tenryū-ji, in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto. Unrefined sake was squeezed out at the brewery, and there are about 180 holes (60 cm wide, 20 cm deep) for holding storage jars. A hollow (1.8 meter wide, 1 meter deep) for a pot to collect drops of pressed sake and 14th-century Bizen ware jars were also found. It is estimated to be utilized until the Onin War (1467–1477). Sake was brewed at Tenryū-ji during the Muromachi Period (1336–1573).[44]
Production[edit]
Rice[edit]
The rice used for brewing sake is called sakamai
Premium sake is mostly made from sake rice. However, non-premium sake is mostly made from table rice. According to the Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association, premium sake makes up 25% of total sake production, and non-premium sake (futsushu) makes up 75% of sake production. In 2008, a total of 180,000 tons of polished rice were used in sake brewing, of which sake rice accounted for 44,000 tons (24%), and table rice accounted for 136,000 tons (76%).[48]
Sake rice is usually polished to a much higher degree than ordinary table rice. The reason for polishing is a result of the composition and structure of the rice grain itself. The core of the rice grain is rich in starch, while the outer layers of the grain contain higher concentrations of fats, vitamins, and proteins. Since a higher concentration of fat and protein in the sake would lead to off-flavors and contribute rough elements to the sake, the outer layers of the sake rice grain is milled away in a polishing process, leaving only the starchy part of the grain (some sake brewers remove over 60% of the rice grain in the polishing process). That desirable pocket of starch in the center of the grain is called the shinpaku (
If the sake is made with rice with a higher percentage of its husk and the outer portion of the core milled off, then more rice will be required to make that particular sake, which will take longer to produce. Thus, sake made with rice that has been highly milled is usually more expensive than sake that has been made with less-polished rice. This does not always mean that sake made with highly milled rice is of better quality than sake made with rice milled less. Sake made with highly milled rice has a strong aroma and a light taste without miscellaneous taste. It maximizes the fruity flavor of ginjō. On the other hand, sake made with less milled rice but with attention to various factors tends to have a rich sweetness and flavor derived from rice.[46][47]
Rice polishing ratio, called Seimai-buai
Water[edit]
Water is involved in almost every major sake brewing process, from washing the rice to diluting the final product before bottling. The mineral content of the water can be important in the final product. Iron will bond with an amino acid produced by the kōji to produce off flavors and a yellowish color. Manganese, when exposed to ultraviolet light, will also contribute to discoloration. Conversely, potassium, magnesium, and phosphoric acid serve as nutrients for yeast during fermentation and are considered desirable.[51] The yeast will use those nutrients to work faster and multiply resulting in more sugar being converted into alcohol. While soft water will typically yield sweeter sake, hard water with a higher nutrient content is known for producing drier-style sake.
The first region known for having great water was the Nada-Gogō in Hyōgo Prefecture. A particular water source called Miyamizu was found to produce high-quality sake and attracted many producers to the region. Today Hyōgo has the most sake brewers of any prefecture.[51]
Typically breweries obtain water from wells, though surface water can be used. Breweries may use tap water and filter and adjust components.[51]
Kōji-kin[edit]
Aspergillus oryzae (yellow kōji)[edit]
Aspergillus oryzae spores are another important component of sake. A. oryzae is an enzyme-secreting fungus.[52] In Japan, A. oryzae is used to make various fermented foods, including miso (a paste made from soybeans) and shoyu (soy sauce).[52] It is also used to make alcoholic beverages, notably sake.[52] During sake brewing, spores of A. oryzae are scattered over steamed rice to produce kōji (rice in which A. oryzae spores are cultivated).[53] Under warm and moist conditions, the A. oryzae spores germinate and release amylases (enzymes that convert the rice starches into maltose and glucose). This conversion of starch into simple sugars (e.g., glucose or maltose) is called saccharification. Yeast then ferment the glucose and other sugar into alcohol.[53] Saccharification also occurs in beer brewing, where mashing is used to convert starches from barley into maltose.[53] However, whereas fermentation occurs after saccharification in beer brewing, saccharification (via A. oryzae) and fermentation (via yeast) occur simultaneously in sake brewing (see "Fermentation" below).[53]
As A. oryzae is a microorganism used to manufacture food, its safety profile concerning humans and the environment in sake brewing and other food-making processes must be considered. Various health authorities, including Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), consider A. oryzae generally safe for use in food fermentation, including sake brewing.[52] When assessing its safety, it is important to note that A. oryzae lacks the ability to produce toxins, unlike the closely related Aspergillus flavus.[52] To date, there have been several reported cases of animals (e.g. parrots, a horse) being infected with A. oryzae.[54] In these cases the animals infected with A. oryzae were already weakened due to predisposing conditions such as recent injury, illness or stress, hence were susceptible to infections in general.[54] Aside from these cases, there is no evidence to indicate A. oryzae is a harmful pathogen to either plants or animals in the scientific literature.[54] Therefore, Health Canada considers A. oryzae "unlikely to be a serious hazard to livestock or to other organisms," including "healthy or debilitated humans."[54] Given its safety record in the scientific literature and extensive history of safe use (spanning several hundred years) in the Japanese food industry, the FDA and World Health Organization (WHO) also support the safety of A. oryzae for use in the production of foods like sake.[52] In the US, the FDA classifies A.oryzae as a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) organism.[52]
Aspergillus kawachii (white kōji)[edit]
In addition to Aspergillus oryzae (yellow kōji), Aspergillus kawachii (white kōji) and Aspergillus luchuensis (black kōji), which are used to brew shōchū and awamori, have been used to brew sake since the 21st century.[1]
From the 1980s, research was conducted to brew sake using Aspergillus kawachii (white kōji), which is used to make shōchū,[55] and sake made with Aspergillus kawachii became popular when Aramasa Co, Ltd. released "Amaneko" using Aspergillus kawachii in 2009. Aspergillus kawachii produces about 10 times more citric acid than Aspergillus oryzae, and thus has a strong ability to suppress the growth of bacteria that damage the flavor of sake. It also imparts a sour, citrus-like flavor to sake. Because it produces so much citric acid, older sake-making methods such as kimoto or yamahai can produce a starter mash as quickly as modern sokujō. Kimoto and yamahai do not add artificial lactic acid, which allows them to be labeled "additive-free," giving them a marketing advantage when exporting.[1]
Aspergillus luchuensis (black kōji)[edit]
As of 2022, sake made with Aspergillus luchuensis (black kōji, ) will not be as popular as sake made with Aspergillus kawachii. It produces more citric acid than Aspergillus kawachii. However, it produces less amino acids, which produce complex flavors such as umami, bitterness, and sweetness, and more peptides, which produce bitterness, resulting in a bitter taste from the peptides and a strong sour taste from the citric acid, which is sometimes compared to strawberry or red wine.[1]
Fermentation[edit]
Sake fermentation is a three-step process called sandan shikomi.[56] The first step, called hatsuzoe, involves steamed rice, water, and kōji-kin being added to the yeast starter called shubo: a mixture of steamed rice, water, kōji, and yeast.[56] This mixture becomes known as the moromi (the main mash during sake fermentation).[56] The high yeast content of the shubo promotes the fermentation of the moromi.[56]
On the second day, the mixture stands for a day to let the yeast multiply.[56]
The second step (the third day of the process), called nakazoe, involves the addition of a second batch of kōji, steamed rice, and water to the mixture.[56] On the fourth day of the fermentation, the third step of the process, called tomezoe, takes place.[56] Here, the third and final batch of kōji, steamed rice, and water is added to the mixture to complete the three-step process.[56]
The fermentation process of sake is a multiple parallel fermentation unique to sake.[56] Multiple parallel fermentation is the conversion of starch into glucose followed by immediate conversion into alcohol.[57] This process distinguishes sake from other liquors like beer because it occurs in a single vat, whereas with beer, for instance, starch-to-glucose conversion and glucose-to-alcohol conversion occur in separate vats.[57] The breakdown of starch into glucose is caused by the kōji-kin fungus, while the conversion of glucose into alcohol is caused by yeast.[57] Due to the yeast being available as soon as the glucose is produced, the conversion of glucose to alcohol is very efficient in sake brewing.[57] This results in sake having a generally higher alcohol content than other types of liquor.[57]
After the fermentation process is complete, the fermented moromi is pressed to remove the sake lees and then pasteurized and filtered for color.[56] The sake is then stored in bottles under cold conditions (see "Maturation" below).[56]
The process of making sake can range from 60 to 90 days (2–3 months), while the fermentation alone can take two weeks.[58] On the other hand, ginjō-shu takes about 30 days for fermentation alone.[32]
Maturation[edit]
Like other brewed beverages, sake tends to benefit from a period of storage. Nine to twelve months are required for the sake to mature. Maturation is caused by physical and chemical factors such as oxygen supply, the broad application of external heat, nitrogen oxides, aldehydes, and amino acids, among other unknown factors.[59]
Tōji[edit]
Tōji (
Varieties[edit]
Special-designation sake[edit]
There are two basic types of sake: Futsū-shu (
Ginjō (
Junmai (
Sake made with highly milled rice has a strong aroma and a light taste without miscellaneous taste. It maximizes the fruity flavor of ginjō. On the other hand, sake made with less milled rice but with attention to various factors tends to have a rich sweetness and flavor derived from rice.[46][47]
The certification requirements for special-designation sake must meet the conditions listed below, as well as the superior aroma and color specified by the National Tax Agency.[65] The listing below often has the highest price at the top:
Special Designation[65] | Ingredients[65] | Rice Polishing Ratio (percent rice remaining)[65] | Percentage of Kōji rice[65] |
---|---|---|---|
Junmai Daiginjō-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice | 50% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.[32] | At least 15% |
Daiginjō-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol[note 1] | 50% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.[32] | At least 15% |
Junmai Ginjō-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice | 60% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.[32] | At least 15% |
Ginjō-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol[note 1] | 60% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.[32] | At least 15% |
Tokubetsu Junmai-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice | 60% or less, or produced by special brewing method[note 2] | At least 15% |
Tokubetsu Honjōzō-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol[note 1] | 60% or less, or produced by special brewing method[note 2] | At least 15% |
Junmai-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice | Regulations do not stipulate a rice polishing ratio[71] | At least 15% |
Honjōzō-shu ( |
Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol[note 1] | 70% or less | At least 15% |
Methods of preparing the starter mash[edit]
- Bodaimoto (
菩提 酛) is a method used by Shōryaku-ji in Nara to make starter mash during the Muromachi period (1336–1573). In recent years, some sake breweries have begun to revive this method based on documents from the Muromachi period.[72] - Kimoto (
生 酛) is the traditional orthodox method for preparing the starter mash, which includes the laborious process of using poles to mix it into a paste, known as yama-oroshi. This method was the standard for 300 years. - Yamahai (
山 廃 ) is a simplified version of the kimoto method, introduced in the early 1900s. Yamahai skips the step of making a paste out of the starter mash. That step of the kimoto method is known as yama-oroshi, and the full name for yamahai is yama-oroshi haishi (山 卸 廃止 ), meaning 'discontinuation of yama-oroshi. While the yamahai method was originally developed to speed production time compared to the kimoto method, it is slower than the modern method and is now used only in specialty brews for the earthy flavors it produces. - Sokujō (
速 醸), 'quick fermentation,' is the modern method of preparing the starter mash. Lactic acid, produced naturally in the two slower traditional methods, is added to the starter to inhibit unwanted bacteria. Sokujō sake tends to have a lighter flavor than kimoto or yamahai.
Different handling after fermentation[edit]
The characteristics of sake listed below are generally described on the label attached to the sake bottle. For example, "Shiboritate muroka nama genshu" (しぼりたて
- Namazake (
生酒 ) is sake that has not been pasteurized. It requires refrigerated storage and has a shorter shelf-life than pasteurized sake. Since namazake is not pasteurized, it is generally characterized by a strong, fresh, sweet, and fruity flavor that is easy for beginners to enjoy. Also, because fermentation continues in the bottle, the change in flavor can be enjoyed over time, and some are effervescent due to the production of gases during fermentation.[73] - Genshu (
原酒 ) is undiluted sake. Most sake is diluted with water after brewing to lower the alcohol content from 18 to 20% down to 14–16%, but genshu is not. - Muroka (
無 濾過 ) means unfiltered. It refers to sake that has not been carbon filtered but that has been pressed and separated from the lees and thus is clear, not cloudy. Carbon filtration can remove desirable flavors and odors as well as bad ones, thus muroka sake has stronger flavors than filtered varieties. - Jikagumi (
直 汲 み) is sake made by squeezing mash and putting the freshly made sake directly into a bottle without transferring it to a tank. It is generally effervescent and has a strong flavor because it is filled in the bottle with as little exposure to the air as possible to the freshest liquor that continues to ferment. It is a sake that maximizes the advantages of namazake or shinoritate.[74] - Nigorizake (
濁 り酒 ) is cloudy sake. The sake is passed through a loose mesh to separate it from the mash. In the production process of nigorizake, rough cloth or colander is used to separate mash. It is not filtered after that, and there is much rice sediment in the bottle. It is generally characterized by its rich sweetness derived from rice. Nigorizake is sometimes unpasteurized namazake, which means that it is still fermenting and has an effervescent quality. Therefore, shaking the bottle or exposing it to high temperatures may cause the sake to spurt out of the bottle, so care should be taken when opening the bottle. When first opening the bottle, the cap should be slightly opened and then closed repeatedly to release the gas that has filled the bottle little by little.[75] To maximize the flavor of nigorizake, there are some tips on how to drink it. First drink only the clear supernatant, then close the cap and slowly turn the bottle upside down to mix the sediment with the clear sake to enjoy the change in flavor.[76] - Origarami (おりがらみ) is a sake with less turbidity than nigorizake. Origarami is filtered differently from nigorizake and is filtered in the same way as ordinary sake. The reason mash lees are precipitated in the bottle is that the process of making ordinary sake, in which lees are precipitated and the supernatant is scooped up and bottled to complete the product, is omitted. Sake that is lightly cloudy like origarami is also called usunigori (
薄濁 り) or kasumizake (霞 酒 ).[77] - Seishu (
清酒 ), 'clear/clean sake,' is the Japanese legal definition of sake and refers to sake in which the solids have been strained out, leaving clear liquid. Thus doburoku (see below) is not seishu and therefore are not actually sake under Japanese law. Although Nigorizake is cloudy, it is legally classified as seishu because it goes through the process of filtering through a mesh.[78] - Koshu (
古 酒 ) is 'aged sake'. Most sake does not age well, but this specially made type can age for decades, turning yellow and acquiring a honeyed flavor. - Taruzake (
樽 酒 ) is sake aged in wooden barrels or bottled in wooden casks. The wood used is Cryptomeria (杉 , sugi), which is also known as Japanese cedar. Sake casks are often tapped ceremonially to open buildings, businesses, parties, etc. Because the wood imparts a strong flavor, premium sake is rarely used for this type. - Shiboritate (
搾 立 て), 'freshly pressed,' refers to sake that has been shipped without the traditional six-month aging/maturation period. The result is usually a more acidic, "greener" sake. - Fukurozuri (
袋 吊 り) is a method of separating sake from the lees without external pressure by hanging the mash in bags and allowing the liquid to drip out under its weight. Sake produced this way is sometimes called shizukuzake (雫 酒 ), meaning 'drip sake'. - Tobingakoi (
斗 瓶 囲 い) is sake pressed into 18-liter (4.0 imp gal; 4.8 U.S. gal) bottles (tobin) with the brewer selecting the best sake of the batch for shipping.
Others[edit]
- Amazake (
甘酒 ) is a traditional sweet, low- or non-alcoholic Japanese drink made from fermented rice. - Doburoku (
濁酒 ) is the classic home-brew style of sake (although home brewing is illegal in Japan). It is created by simply adding kōji mold to steamed rice and water and letting the mixture ferment. It is sake made without separating mash. The resulting sake is somewhat like a chunkier version of nigorizake. - Jizake (
地酒 ) is locally brewed sake, the equivalent of microbrewing beer. - Kijōshu (
貴 醸酒) is sake made using sake instead of water. A typical sake is made using 130 liters of water for every 100 kilograms of rice, while kijōshu is made using 70 liters of water and 60 liters of sake for every 100 kilograms of rice. Kijōshu is characterized by its unique rich sweetness, aroma and thickness, which can be best brought out when aged to an amber color. kijōshu is often more expensive than ordinary sake because it was developed in 1973 by the National Tax Agency's brewing research institute for the purpose of making expensive sake that can be served at government banquets for state guests. The method of making sake using sake instead of water is similar to the sake brewing method called shiori described in the Engishiki compiled in 927. Because the term kijōshu is trademarked, sake makers not affiliated with the Kijōshu Association (貴 醸酒協会 ) cannot use the name. Therefore, when non-member sake manufacturers sell kijōshu, they use terms such as saijō jikomi (再 醸仕込 み) to describe the process.[34][79] - Kuroshu (
黒酒 ) is sake made from unpolished rice (i.e., brown rice), and is more like huangjiu. - Teiseihaku-shu (
低 精白 酒 ) is sake with a deliberately high rice-polishing ratio. It is generally held that the lower the rice polishing ratio (the percent weight after polishing), the better the potential of the sake. Circa 2005, teiseihaku-shu has been produced as a specialty sake made with high rice-polishing ratios, usually around 80%, to produce sake with the characteristic flavor of rice itself. - Akaisake (
赤 い酒 ), literally "red sake", is produced by using red yeast rice kōji Monascus purpureus (紅 麹 , benikōji), giving the sake a pink-tinted appearance similar to rosé wine.[80]
Some other terms commonly used in connection with sake:
- Nihonshu-do (
日本酒 度 ), also called the Sake Meter Value or SMV
- Specific gravity is measured on a scale weighing the same volume of water at 4 °C (39 °F) and sake at 15 °C (59 °F). The sweeter the sake, the lower the number (or more negative); the drier the sake, the higher the number. When the SMV was first used, 0 was the point between sweet and dry sake. Now +3 is considered neutral.
- Seimai-buai (
精米 歩合 ) is the rice polishing ratio (or milling rate), the percentage of weight remaining after polishing. Generally, the lower the number, the higher the sake's complexity. A lower percentage usually results in a fruitier and more complex sake, whereas a higher percentage will taste more like rice. - Kasu (
粕 ) are pressed sake lees, the solids left after pressing and filtering. These are used for making pickles, livestock feed, and shōchū, and as an ingredient in dishes like kasu soup.
Taste and flavor[edit]
The label on a bottle of sake gives a rough indication of its taste. Terms found on the label may include nihonshu-do (
Nihonshu-do (
San-do (
Aminosan-do (
Sake can have many flavor notes, such as fruits, flowers, herbs, and spices. Many types of sake have notes of apple from ethyl caproate and banana from isoamyl acetate, particularly ginjō-shu (
Serving sake[edit]
In Japan, sake is served chilled (reishu (
Sake is traditionally drunk from small cups called choko or o-choko (お
Another traditional cup is the masu, a box usually made of hinoki or sugi, which was originally used for measuring rice. The masu holds exactly one gō, 180.4 mL (6.35 imp fl oz; 6.10 US fl oz), so the sake is served by filling the masu to the brim; this is done for chilled or room temperature sake. In some Japanese restaurants, as a show of generosity, the server may put a glass inside the masu or put the masu on a saucer and pour until sake overflows and fills both containers.
Sake is traditionally served in units of gō, and this is still common, but other sizes are sometimes also available.
Saucer-like cups called sakazuki are also used, most commonly at weddings and other ceremonial occasions, such as the start of the year or the beginning of a kaiseki meal. In cheap bars, sake is often served at room temperature in glass tumblers and called koppu-zake (コップ
Traditionally sake is heated immediately before serving, but today restaurants may buy sake in boxes that can be heated in a specialized hot sake dispenser, thus allowing hot sake to be served immediately. However, this is detrimental to the flavor. There are also a variety of devices for heating sake and keeping it warm beyond the traditional tokkuri.
Aside from being served straight, sake can be used as a mixer for cocktails, such as tamagozake, saketinis, or nogasake.[86] Outside of Japan, the sake bomb, the origins of which are unclear,[87] has become a popular drink in bars and Asia-themed karaoke clubs.
The Japanese Sake Association encourages people to drink chaser water for their health, and the water is called Yawaragi-mizu.[88]
Seasonality[edit]
Because the cooler temperatures make it more difficult for bacteria to grow, sake brewing traditionally took place mainly in winter, and this was especially true from 1673 during the Edo period until the early 20th century during the Showa era.[24] While it can now be brewed year-round, seasonality is still associated with sake, particularly artisanal ones. The most visible symbol of this is the sugitama (
Storage[edit]
Sake is sold in volume units divisible by 180 mL (6.3 imp fl oz; 6.1 US fl oz) (one gō), the traditional Japanese unit for cup size.[89] Sake is traditionally sold by the gō-sized cup, or in a 1.8 L (63 imp fl oz; 61 US fl oz) (one shō or ten gō)-sized flask (called an isshōbin, or 'one shō-measure bottle'). Today sake is also often sold in 720 mL (25 imp fl oz; 24 US fl oz) bottles, which are divisible into four gō. Note that this is almost the same as the 750 mL (26 imp fl oz; 25 US fl oz) standard for wine bottles, which is divisible into four quarter bottles (187ml). Particularly in convenience stores, sake (generally of cheap quality) may be sold in a small 360 mL (13 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) bottle or a single serving 180 mL (6.3 imp fl oz; 6.1 US fl oz) (one gō) glass with a pull-off top (カップ
Generally, it is best to keep sake refrigerated in a cool or dark room, as prolonged exposure to heat or direct light will lead to spoilage. Sake stored at a relatively high temperature can lead to the formation of diketopiperazine, a cyclo (Pro-Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages[90] Sake has high microbiological stability due to its high content of ethanol, but instances of spoilage have occurred. One of the microorganisms implicated in this spoilage is lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that has grown tolerant to ethanol and is referred to as hiochi-bacteria.[91] Sake stored at room temperature is best consumed within a few months after purchase.[92]
Sake can be stored for a long time due to its high alcohol content and has no use-by dates written on the bottle or label. However, there is a best before date for good drinking, and it depends on the type of sake, with the typical twice-pasteurized sake having a relatively long best before date. According to major sake brewer Gekkeikan, the best before date when unopened and stored in a dark place at about 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) is one year after production for futsū-shu and honjōzō-shu, 10 months for ginjō-shu, junmai-shu, and sake pasteurized only once, and up to eight months for special namazake that can be distributed at room temperature.[93] According to Sawanotsuru, once pasteurized sake and unpasteurized namazake have a best before date of nine months after production.[94] Some sources also state that the best before date for unpasteurized namazake is three to six months after production. Namazake generally requires refrigeration at all times.[95][96] However, there are exceptions to these storage conditions, in which case the conditions are stated on the label. For example, sake under the brand name Aramasa (
Once the sake is opened, it should be kept refrigerated, as the flavor deteriorates more quickly than before opening. Best before date after opening the bottle varies depending on the source. According to sake media outlet Sake no shizuku, which interviewed several major sake production companies, the responses from all companies were nearly identical. According to the responses, junmai type sake without added distilled alcohol has a best before date of 10 days after opening, while other types of sake with added distilled alcohol has a best before date of one month after opening.[98] According to the international sommelier of sake certified by SSI International, ginjō type sake, which is fermented at low temperature for a long time, has little flavor degradation for two to three days after opening and has a best before date of one week after opening. Other special designation sake and futsū-shu have little flavor degradation for 10 to 14 days after opening the bottle and have a best before date of one month after opening. Unpasteurized namazake deteriorates the fastest and should be drunk as soon as possible.[99]
These best before dates are shortened when stored at high temperatures or in bright places, especially under sunlight or fluorescent lights that emit ultraviolet rays.[99] On the other hand, the optimal temperature to minimize flavor degradation is minus 5 degrees Celsius (23 degrees Fahrenheit). It is also recommended that sake bottles be stored vertically. This is because if the bottle is placed horizontally, the sake is exposed to more air inside the bottle, which speeds up oxidation and may change the flavor when it comes in contact with the cap.[100]
If these types of sake, which were clear or white at first, turn yellow or brown, it is a sign that the flavor has deteriorated. The exception is aged koshu, which is amber in color from the time of shipment because it has been aged for several years to optimize its flavor.[94]
Ceremonial use[edit]
Sake is often consumed as part of Shinto purification rituals. Sake served to gods as offerings before drinking are called o-miki (
In a ceremony called kagami biraki, wooden sake casks are opened with mallets during Shinto festivals, weddings, store openings, sports and election victories, and other celebrations. This sake, called iwai-zake ('celebration sake'), is served freely to all to spread good fortune.
At the New Year, many Japanese people drink a special sake called toso. Toso is a sort of iwai-zake made by soaking tososan, a kampo (traditional Japanese medicine), overnight in sake. Even children sip a portion. In some regions, the first sips of toso are taken in order of age, from the youngest to the eldest.
On Children's Day, May 5, there is a custom of drinking shōbu sake (
-
A Shochikubai Komodaru (straw mat cask) of sake before the kagami biraki
-
Decorative sake containers in a Nakatsugawa shop
Events[edit]
- October 1 is the official "Sake Day" (
日本酒 の日 , Nihonshu no Hi) of Japan.[102] It is also called "World Sake Day". It was designated by the Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association in 1978.
See also[edit]
- Amylolytic process
- Awamori, a distilled rice liquor produced in Okinawa
- The Birth of Saké
- Cheongju, a Korean equivalent
- Chuak, a Tripuri rice beer
- Glossary of sake terms
- Habushu, awamori liquor containing a snake
- Handia-an Indian equivalent.
- Kohama style, a method of sake brewing
- Mijiu, a Chinese equivalent
- Mirin, an essential condiment used in Japanese cuisine, which has been drunk as a sweet sake
- Toso, spiced medicinal sake
- World Sake Day
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General sources[edit]
- Bamforth CW. (2005). "Sake." Food, Fermentation and Micro-organisms. Blackwell Science: Oxford, UK: 143–153.
- Kobayashi T, Abe K, Asai K, Gomi K, Uvvadi PR, Kato M, Kitamoto K, Takeuchi M, Machida M. (2007). "Genomics of Aspergillus oryzae". Biosci Biotechnol. Biochem. 71(3):646–670.
- Suzuki K, Asano S, Iijima K, Kitamoto K. (2008). "Sake and Beer Spoilage Lactic Acid Bacteria – A review." The Inst of Brew & Distilling; 114(3):209–223.
- Uno T, Itoh A, Miyamoto T, Kubo M, Kanamaru K, Yamagata H, Yasufuku Y, Imaishi H. (2009). "Ferulic Acid Production in the Brewing of Rice Wine (Sake)." J Inst Brew. 115(2):116–121.
Further reading[edit]
- Aoki, Rocky, Nobu Mitsuhisa and Pierre A. Lehu (2003). Sake: Water from Heaven. New York: Universe Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7893-0847-4
- Bunting, Chris (2011). Drinking Japan. Singapore: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-4-8053-1054-0.
- Eckhardt, Fred (1993). Sake (U.S.A.): A Complete Guide to American Sake, Sake Breweries and Homebrewed Sake. Portland, Oregon: Fred Eckhardt Communications. ISBN 978-0-9606302-8-8.
- Gauntner, John (2002). The Sake Handbook. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3425-4.
- Harper, Philip; Haruo Matsuzaki; Mizuho Kuwata; Chris Pearce (2006). The Book of Sake: A Connoisseurs Guide. Tokyo: Kodansha International. ISBN 978-4-7700-2998-0
- Kaempfer, Engelbert (1906). The History of Japan: Together with a Description of the Kingdom of Siam, 1690–92, Vol I. Vol II. Vol III. London: J. MacLehose and Sons. OCLC 5174460.
- Morewood, Samuel (1824). An Essay on the Inventions and Customs of Both Ancients and Moderns in the Use of Inebriating Liquors: Interspersed with Interesting Anecdotes, Illustrative of the Manners and Habits of the Principal Nations of the World, with an Historical View of the Extent and Practice of Distillation. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. OCLC 213677222.
- Titsingh, Issac (1781). "Bereiding van de Sacki" ("Producing Sake"), Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap (Transactions of the Batavian Academy), Vol. III. OCLC 9752305.
Notes[edit]
- ^ In Japan, the term kōji may refer to all fungi used in fermented foods or to specific species of fungi, Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae.[2][3]
External links[edit]
- Sake Service Institute
- Sake Education Council Archived September 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- Sake Sommelier Association
- An Indispensable Guide to Sake and Japanese Culture
- What Does Sake Taste Like? Archived November 7, 2021, at the Wayback Machine