Page 1

1

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Research Article

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of

‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

Berkay ÇELEBİ 1

Esma TEZCAN 2

ABSTRACT

The Romantic Movement in English Literature, literary scholars generally

overlook the fact that English Romanticism takes its roots in German

and focused on the value of emotions to the point of irrationalism. This

pre-romantic movement known as Sturm und Drang, similar to English

Romanticism, urges society to go back to their nature and their human

core by way of embracing their emotions. Within the scope of German

The Sorrows of Young Werther, one can

see these elements of the Sturm und Drang yet related to another concept

coined as Kraftmensch. English Romanticism, mostly, deals with the

positive emotions of human nature whereas in the Sturm und Drang the

focus of the authors is dealing with negative emotions of human nature.

Furthermore, it is safe to say that both English and German literature’s

Romantic Movements, though by different methods, urge people to go

back to their core as a way of reuniting with nature itself to experience

the sublime (in terms of Edmund Burke and the Kantian Sublime) rather

perspective and neglecting their emotional self. Namely, while the main

focus of English Romanticism is love and beauty, Sturm und Drang

focuses on chaos and death. Therefore, this paper aims to discuss and

highlight the emergence of English Romanticism and place elements of

the German Sturm und Drang Movement as its precursor whilst using the

primary romantic novel of English literature: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein

as an example.

Keywords: English Romanticism, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Sturm und

Drang, Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther

1 Istanbul Aydın University, Istanbul, berkayc@stu.aydin.edu.tr; https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8236-6924

2 Assist. Prof. Dr., Istanbul, Istanbul Aydın University esmatezcan@aydin.edu.tr; ; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-

5781-9119

2

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

ÖZ

Edebiyat bilimiyle uğraşan akademisyenlerin çoğu Mary Shelley’nin Fran-

kenstein’ını İngiliz Edebiyatının Romantik Akım kategorisine yerleştirir-

ken, İngiliz Romantizminin köklerini Alman Edebiyatınının anti-Rasyona-

lizm olarak da adlandırılabilinen ve irrasyonalizm noktasına değin duygu-

ların önemine odaklanan özgül bir hareketinden aldığı gerçeğini genellikle

göz ardı ederler. Sturm und Drang olarak da bilinen bu romantizm öncesi

hareket, İngiliz Romantizmine benzer şekilde, toplumu duygularını kucak-

lamak suretiyle kendi doğalarına ve insani özlerine geri dönmeye davet

eder. Alman Edebiyatı kapsamında, özellikle Goethe’nin Genç Werther’in

Acıları adlı eserinde, Sturm und Drang’ın bu unsurları görülebilir, dahası

doğrudan doğruya Kraftmensch olarak adlandırılan başka bir kavramla da

sıkı sıkıya ilişkilidir. İngiliz Romantizmi çoğunlukla insan doğasının ba-

rındırdığı olumlu duygularla ilgilenirken, Sturm und Drang’da yazarların

odak noktası daha ziyade insan doğasının taşıdığı olumsuz daha doğru-

su karamsar duygularıdır. Ayrıca, hem İngiliz hem de Alman edebiyatı-

nın Romantik Akımlarının, farklı yöntemlerle de olsa, insanları duygusal

benliklerini ihmal eden ve rasyonalist bakış açısının saf bilimine hapsolup

doğalarını dahası özlerini kaybetmek yerine, yüce olanı (Edmund Burke

ve Kantçı terminolojiyle Yücelik) deneyimlemek için doğanın kendisiyle

özdeşleşmenin bir yolu olarak özlerine dönmeye teşvik ettiğini söylemek

yanlış olmayacaktır. Diğer bir ifadeyle, İngiliz Romantizminin odağı aşk

ve güzellik iken, Sturm und Drang kaos ve ölüme odaklanır. Bu bakış açı-

sından hareketle, Alman Sturm und Drang akımı İngiliz Romantizminin

ortaya çıkışına bir nevi öncü akım hatta pre-romantik olarak konumlandı-

rılarak, Sturm und Drang akımının İngiliz Romantik akımına iz düşümü

Shelley’nin Frankenstein’ı üzerinden ele alınacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: İngiliz Romantizmi, Mary Shelley’nin Frankenstein’ı,

Sturm und Drang, Goethe’nin Genç Werther’ın Acıları

“Ironically, England was now to receive its stimulus from Germany, from ideas which had in fact

originated on her shores and had been elaborated abroad while they were more or less ignored at

home. … in spite of the success of Werther…”

˗ Lilian R. Furst, 126

3

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

INTRODUCTION

The Romantic Movement in literature is commonly and accurately

attributed to “English Romanticism”. However, one might realize that this

movement with all its glamour did not suddenly surface into the world

of literature. When delving deeper into the origins of Romanticism and

literary work stands out as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein; or The Modern

Prometheus

issues present in its day and age. Though one might ask, how Romanticism

emerged, and how it was triggered, in other words, one might consider

there to be a precursor which one could claim as pre-romanticism.

The expression “Sturm und Drang” is generally and very loosely translated

as “Storm and Stress” (Hill, 2003, p. 1) however for the sake of preventing

misusage of the term, rather than utilizing the English translation, the original

term is going to be used throughout this article. For the most part, it has

been argued that Sturm und Drang emerged as a movement in Germany in

the 18th century an opposing line of thought to the Enlightenment or rather

its emphasis being put on reason. This emergence owing to the fact that

with the ascend of rationalism in Europe general society had started to rely

thought based on empirical evidence. This in turn led to the emotions and

the spiritual existence of humankind being neglected or even dismissed.

Humanity seemed more and more concerned with rationality, dismissing

a supposed “natural core” connected to whatever lay beyond reason and

reasoning and was considered to be attached to the internal emotions of

oneself (Hill, 2003, p. 5). Furthermore, the oppositional rise of the Sturm

und Drang movement was meant to remind humanity of its actual being that

origins again leading to another term strongly connected to the movement,

namely the concept of Kraftmensch. In his article, A Titan in Extenuating

Circumstances: Sturm und Drang and the Kraftmensch, Alan Leidner

(1989) stated that toward the end of the 1700s, German playwrights and

prominently Friederich Maximillian Klinger coined the term Kraftmensch.

The violence attributed to this new man of action, as most likely Leidner

puts it, “…seems to sum up the essence of Sturm und Drang” while also

mentioning that this man of action poses “…an impulsive individuality

that appears to need no authority beyond itself” (Leidner, 1989. p. 178).

4

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

As it will be further discussed this notion of violence will be associated

with the terms of violation as an act of agency in accordance with Georges

Bataille’s argument which in turn is observable in the coining protagonists

of the English Romantic narrative.

The most prominent author of the movement of Sturm und Drang,

sometimes even considered the initial author to give life to the core

teachings of the movement mirrored in literary works is Johann Wolfgang

von Goethe (1749-1832) and on the level of stage plays it is Friedrich

Maximilian Klinger (1752–1831). They, as the initiators of a thought

put to word by creating protagonists who are or grow into becoming a

Kraftmensch are commonly referred to as the ‘Stürmer und Dränger’

(Hill, 2003, p. 2). Goethe’s novel The Sorrows of Young Werther, which

is going to be one of the focal points of this article, clarifies the German

perspective of the Sturm und Drang movement as a precursor to the rise of

English Romanticism.

In terms of literature in general, one can argue that different genres

reflect the emergence of different protagonist types, the Sturm und Drang

movement presenting the Kraftmensch whilst English Romanticism’s most

prominent protagonist, the Byronic Hero is born. The coining protagonist

of English Romanticism known as Dr. Frankenstein seems to be based on

the archetype of the Sturm und Drang protagonist, namely the Kraftmensch.

Further, this undeniable relation is most easily observable when the

protagonist that each movement produces is analyzed in comparison based

on the degree of their agency. Therefore, the argumentation concerning

the Emergence of English Romanticism based on a German movement is

better emphasized when the gradual progression of the Kraftmensch in its

anglicized counterpart is traced.

This progression showcases itself in the example of poetry categorized

under English Romanticism in Lord Byron’s ‘Unfinished’ Hyperion. On

the other hand, when it comes to the category of prose, one can encounter

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein within the same literary movement. This

article aims to point out the fact that English Romanticism has taken its

roots from an 18th-century German Movement called Sturm und Drang

and substantiates this argument utilizing the adaption of the evolved, even

perfected Kraftmensch within English Literature as reflected in Shelley’s

protagonist Dr. Frankenstein. Therefore, beginning with certain similarities

linking Sturm und Drang and English Romanticism as diachronic literary

5

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

instances are going to be discussed based on the most prominent works

that have coined the emergence of both movements which are selected as

Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein

while also referring to Lord Byron’s Hyperion. It is common knowledge

that Lord Byron is known to be in admiration of J.W. Goethe and highly

Frankenstein.

DISCUSSION

English Romanticism encompasses several prominent literary works

both prose and poetic as previously mentioned which coin the movement

as belonging to the Anglo-Saxon tradition. However, often – either

intentionally or due to dismissal- the effects of other literary works and

basic movements seem to be overlooked or dismissed as being the initiating

source and precursor of English Romanticism. On this note, a German-

originated movement known as Sturm und Drang can be distinctively

singled out as being the precursor to English Romanticism both in style,

aim, philosophy, and the construction of protagonists. This relation

becomes only more plausible when Lord Byron’s obvious admiration of

Goethe and the trending German literary movement promoting irrationality

and the experiencing of emotions in favor of rationalism is taken into

consideration. It is not to say that the Sturm und Drang movement is a

version of German Romanticism, but rather a forethought pointing towards

letting free emotions reign to the point of irrationality and experiencing

the sublime.

It is suggested that a human is not merely under the command of logos/

reason and should be reinvesting in getting in touch with one’s divine

reason. This line of thought seems to be imported to the English tradition

during Lord Byron’s efforts of adopting an artistic style that tends to

emphasize the promotion of emotional experience again in the attempts

to reunite one’s humanity with nature itself in search of transcendence.

Going back to Byron’s attempted Hyperion, it is arguably easy to see

the connection to ancient Greek philosophy in which exactly this nature-

mimetic wholeness with the universe as a form of existence is promoted.

Frankenstein as

6

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

the coining piece of literature for the English Romantic movement though,

here, there is an equal emphasis on scientific progress as much as the

free reign of emotions and the promotion of irrationality including the

creation of the primary English Kraftmensch protagonist. In other words,

the evolved and perfected man of agency. The importance of this now-

anglicized protagonist rests in the undeniable reality that the Kraftmensch

is a creation of the Sturm und Drang. Another common denominator seems

to be this proposed introvertiveness via nature which can be then seen in

English Romanticism just as much as in the German movement of the

Sturm und Drang though with a higher degree of agency and violence in

terms of being more fearless in violating standing rational norms, which

can also be labeled as taboos. Hence, to be able to show these similarities

the elements of Sturm und Drang are going to be pointed out using Goethe’s

The Sorrows of Young Werther which is the coining literary work of said

movement and presenting the original Kraftmensch protagonist Werther.

Retrospectively, discovered elements are going to be applied to Mary

Shelley’s Frankenstein to emphasize a direct connection between the two

movements and the construction of protagonists.

Anthony Backes (1994) states that “Frankenstein has been seen as a

critique of the Industrial Revolution, of value-free experimental science,

and of romantic Prometheanism …” (Backes, 1944, p. 34) due to the fact

that with the emergence of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, the focus

of society has been shifted towards the technological developments and

scientific facts. During this period, steam engines started to be produced

which eased transportation, Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) On The

Origins of Species was published therefore the theory of Evolution, and

also Charles Babbage (1791-1871) is regarded as the father of computer

sciences since he designed the notion of the analytical engine (Greenblatt,

2006 p. 1538-1545). These technological developments are surely to be

categorized as the milestones of a society thriving on science, empiricism,

and the dominance of reason. An additional emphasis should be laid on the

scientific discovery of Galvani known as Galvanism and due to its direct

influence on Mary Shelley’s work as the reason counterpart to the irrational

emotions given free reign as encountered within her coining narrative.

David S. Hogsette’s article Metaphysical Intersections in Frankenstein:

Mary Shelley’s Theistic Investigation of Scientific Materialism and

Transgressive Autonomy where he states that “The novel is arguably

7

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

(Hogsette, 2011 p. 532). In light of this, one can argue that the importance

Galvani’s innovations and his later experiments have an impact not only

on Frankenstein

might consider Galvani as a real-life Kraftmensch. Mary (Wollstonecraft)

journey undertaken with Percy Bysshe Shelley to Genova to meet Lord

Byron. During this time, she was said to be already well-versed in the

Aldini produced. It is also stated that during that time, especially in

Switzerland and Italy, Galvanism and ‘reanimation’, which can be thought

of as a direct reference to Frankenstein. Mary Shelley does not utilize the

word Galvanism in her novel however she only mentions it in the preface

of the second edition of the book published in 1831 (Kızıltan & Dalkılıç

2022, p. 256-258). This reference strongly indicates that the fantasy of

of a novel but on the contrary, it is the actual inspiration behind Shelley’s

protagonist Dr. Frankenstein.

themselves in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein when Dr. Victor Frankenstein

utilizes electricity to create a monster, which is also an indication that

he becomes a man of agency or more accurately a Kraftmensch since

he is no longer in need of a creator; himself becoming a creator of his

monster. This again indicates a direct connection to the line of thought

promoted by Sturm und Drang. The same notion also is indicative of the

fact that with Galvanism, humankind no longer needs to be in awe of God

(Hogsette, 2011 p. 532). Hence the subtitle of the novel refers to “… the

modern Prometheus”. This indicates a distancing from the necessity of

transcendence via the experiencing of the sublime since God is no longer

held in awe. Whereas Nietzsche observes that “…God is dead” and in

line presents his version of the evolved Kraftmensch which he labels

“…Übermensch…” indicating that he is referring to a new relationship

between humankind and nature (Nietzsche, 2006 p. 5). Hence, the age of

reason has subdued the sublimity of a creating and omnipotent God since

Nietzsche argues that “Human being is something that must be overcome”

8

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

meaning that the human limitations of being subservient to anything out

of reach of the human limitations need overcoming (Nietzsche, 2006 p. 5).

Following this thought, one is expected to overreach and transcend which

seems to take its emergence from the notions of Burke and Kant merged

with the later understanding of the German-originated Kraftmensch via

experiencing the sublime. This transcendence and sublime experience

being regarded as the divine or wholeness with the universe which can

only be achieved via spiritual connection to nature and transcendence by

way of sublimation for humanity to regain its human core which now,

with the dominance of reason, has been alienated from its true purpose

(Gardner, 1999), (Kant, 2007).

In other words, Kant argues that the experience of the sublime allows

for transcendence and a metaphorical unification with one’s core as

summarized in Esma Tezcan’s Ph.D. thesis focusing on love, sexuality,

and death in Western tradition as argued:

According to Kant, the sublime lies in the human experience of nature. Through this

experience, the limitation, mortality, and smallness of human beings in the face of the

sublime, and thus, in fact, the divine, are pointed out. It is impossible for the human mind

and imagination to comprehend these phenomena of nature, which challenge the human

mind, in the face of their actional appearance and their terrifying motion. Therefore, the

human soul feels pleasure mixed with terrible pain. In this respect Kant gives the example

of the virtuous man’s fear of God; the virtuous man fears God, but he fears God without

actually being frightened by God. For example, in the face of natural phenomena, disasters

or hurricanes, etc., man’s ability to resist is reduced to insignificance and pettiness. On

the other hand, the more frightening their appearance, the more attractive they will be

perceived as, and they will be regarded as sublime, especially when they are witnessed

from a safe distance. (Tezcan, 2018. p. 21-22)3

Again, the concept of sublimation stands out as a bridge between the

German and English traditions which can be seen as yet a further link

verifying the main argument of this article in placing the German

Sturm und Drang tradition at the root of English Romanticism and the

construction of protagonists with agency. The necessary effect of terror

as an opening emotion toward the sublime and hence transcendence can

be observed in both traditions. Kant, representing the German traditions’

take on the matter is the latter one to propose this approximately 50 years

after the initial statement was made by Edmund Burke representing the

English tradition. Though Burke was the first to address the issue of the

3 The block citation given above has obtained from a Ph.D. thesis for German Literature as can be found in

the references and the original language is Turkish. Hence all translations have been done by the author of this

article.

9

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

sublime, the notion as a philosophical approach was primarily adopted

into the literary tradition of the German Stürmer und Dränger only later

to be incorporated into English Romanticism. Nonetheless, both Kant and

Burke are almost identical in their postulations though where the former’s

focus is on the link between sublimity and terror whereas the latter is more

concerned with its relation to beauty.

Edmund Burke (1729) commences his postulations regarding the notion

of the sublime in his book A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of

Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful arguing that there is a distinction

between the beautiful and the sublime. Whereas the beautiful object with

its gradual variation elicits feelings of love and tenderness, on the contrary,

the sublime is the locus of awe and terror (Burke, 1764 p. 60). Fred Botting

in his Gothic, whilst elaborating on Burke’s take on the sublime states that

“the terror was akin to the sense of wonderment and awe accompanying

religious experience. Sublimity offered intimations of a great, if not

divine, power” (Botting, 1999 p. 26). In other words, the sublime seems

to be associated with a divine experience, or at least a realization of

one’s mortality as well as the perception of an existence beyond one’s

comprehension (Kant, 2007). This, in turn, can be singled out as one of

the core obstacles trying to be overcome by humanity in terms of being

absolved from inevitable mortality.

Following this comprehension as to the nature of the sublime, its association

with the term terror needs elaboration. Both Burke and Kant insist that the

key to experiencing the sublime lies solely in invoking the feeling of terror,

hence opening a gateway towards a broader perception not limited by the

Ann Radcliffe, an author very much in the vein of Mary Shelley, although

focusing on the gothic element rather than on the Romantic movement,

elaborates on the consequences of experiencing horror and terror and the

distinction between these experiences shed light on what either of these

feelings are capable of. In Ann Radcliffe’s writings as well as in Botting’s

arguments on the subject referencing Radcliffe’s notions of horror, it is

deduced as a feeling that stuns, even freezes the facilities of the mind. On

the other hand, however much like Edmund Burke and Immanuel Kant

suggest, Ann Radcliffe places the feeling of terror as an apriori condition

for experiencing the sublime in so far as she posits that “…objects of terror

not only give it a sense of its own power but, in the appreciation of awful

10

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

sublimity, suggest the power of a divine order…” (Botting, 1999 p. 48).

After having emphasized the ever-stronger growing link between the

Sturm und Drang movement as a precursor to English Romanticism

including the construction of its protagonist, the notion of the sublime and

its utilization within the narratives belonging to either movement can be

analyzed as a verification of the model of the coining narratives namely

Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther, which is considered one of the

first literary works that transduces with the movement and Mary Shelley’s

Frankenstein.

Both selected narratives feature very specific common denominators

inherent to English Romanticism though unmistakably taking its roots

in German Sturm und Drang. An important distinction however is to

understand the literary strands hailing from both traditions and how they

affect one another. Lilian R. Furst in her article Romanticism in Historical

Perspective boldly draws the battle lines between the two traditions by

stating the following:

To suggest, however, that Romanticism should really be called ‘Germanticism’ on account

of its essentially Germanic roots and spirit is an exaggeration, not to say a distortion in

view of its early sources in England, although it is not without some element of truth,

and high incidence of German words used in connection with Romanticism… in itself

indicates Romanticism’s deep entrenchment in Germany (Furst, 1968 p. 123).

As much as Furst’s position on the relation between the two traditions

seems counterproductive to the aim of this article when looked upon

closely it is a verification of the initial suggestion regarding Sturm und

Drang as a precursor to English Romanticism. Furst posits that English Pre-

Romanticism has adopted the transcendentalism of the German philosophers

of the Jena school, those who also gave rise to German Romanticism itself.

This in turn emphasizes the fact that German Romanticism as a movement

succeeds English Romanticism. In other words, the Romantic movement

in Germany postdates English Romanticism which is not to say that both

take their roots in German transcendental philosophy which is deemed

rather the school of thought on which Sturm und Drang is the creative

artistic expression. Hence again, though English Romanticism is certainly

not to be considered Germanticism -in Furst’s terminology-, it is evident

that the philosophy, the aim, and the urge towards the sublime do emerge

from the Sturm und Drang movement (Furst, 1968 p. 124). This is only

more obvious when the selected narratives for this article are put side by

11

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

side in terms of analyzing the irrefutable markers that derive from the

movement of Sturm und Drang such as the concept of the Kraftmensch,

Kraftnatur, the experiencing of the sublime and the promotion of free

The notion of Kraftmensch is one of the most crucial notions in binding

the two traditions with one another and showcasing the origins of English

Romanticism in Sturm und Drang. Kraftmensch consists of two German

words coined by Klinger, and it can also be referred to as Kraftgenie and/or

Machtmensch meaning “…urkräftiger Mensch, Kraftnatur…”, ‘natively

powerful person, one of powerful nature’ (Leidner, 1989 p. 179) which

both traditions.

The protagonist of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Doctor Victor

Frankenstein, who by utilizing an electrical current revives a corpse and

creates his monster. In becoming a creator, himself, now he contemplates

yellow eyes open. He goes on by not being able to explain his emotions

(Shelley, 1999 p. 45). This incapability of not being able to express his

and Kant argue as the sublime.

In Mary Shelley’s narrative the title is already indicative of the notion

in reference to Prometheus linking the ancient Greek myth of creation

directly to the understanding of the agency emphasized in the Kraftmensch.

Mary Shelley’s novel is not just Frankenstein but Frankenstein: or

The Modern Prometheus and the ‘creator’ of humankind according to

Greek mythology. According to the original myth, during the process of

cosmogony Epimetheus, the brother of Prometheus is tasked with this duty

by the Olympian Gods. Epimetheus, whose name etymologically means

afterthought acts without thinking about the consequences of his actions

thoroughly as his name obviously indicates. He commences by creating

animals whereby giving them the best gifts to survive such as strength,

swiftness, courage, and many more until no gifts remain to bestow

upon humankind ensuring their survival. When Epimetheus realizes his

shortcomings against humankind in adequately equipping them, he consults

his brother, Prometheus, etymologically meaning forethought who is the

wiser of the two. Hence the duty of compensating for this inadequacy falls

12

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

upon Prometheus the Wise who in his love for humankind violates the

set taboo of the Olympian Gods to make humankind superior to all other

creations by initially granting them divine knowledge and mobility. He

makes them erect and upright like Gods whereafter he ascends to Olympus,

to be more precise to the sun, and there, he lights a burning torch, which

is interpreted not only as fire but as a metaphor for divine knowledge

(Hamilton, 2017 p.101).

This interpretation, in turn, can be directly associated with the Genesis

narrative of Adam and Eve’s original sin of violating God’s ordain and

eating from the forbidden “…tree of the knowledge of good and evil”

(New Living Translation, Holy Bible. 1996. Genesis 2:9). With this

forbidden act, they can be seen as gaining agency by overreaching their

human limitations and becoming akin to the divine again verifiable by

God’s statement “Then the LORD God said, ‘The people have become as

we are, knowing everything, both good and evil. What if they eat the fruit

of the tree of life? Then they will live forever!’ ” (NLT, Holy Bible. 1996.

Genesis 3:22). It can be argued that Adam and Eve do become the initial

Kraftmensch(-en) in gaining divine knowledge and becoming like God by

violation of the divine taboo. However, they are banned from the Garden

of Eden to be prevented from complete agency by becoming immortal like

God too, which is the exact obstacle Shelley’s Dr. Frankenstein is adamant

to overcome.

Adam and Eve are yet not fully divine since they are still mortal and the fact

that they have violated the divine law will be further relevant as Georges

Bataille makes use of the term in Erotism: Death & Sensuality whilst

associating it with other terms such as death, taboos, and the suspension

of taboos in alignment with sublimation and gaining agency. Furthermore,

Bataille draws a parallel between the notion of work and thereby being cut

off from violence where he again associates the term violence with the term

violation, since he argues that violation is a violent act against the taboo

in motion. He continues by positing that death in itself can be understood

as the greatest and final violent act toward a human, violating the animate

body of the being and rendering it inanimate since “…violence is always

the cause of death. It may have acted through magical means, but someone

is always responsible, someone is always a murderer” (Bataille, 1986 p.

47). This violation understood as an act of ultimate violence nonetheless

necessitates a culprit, be it divine or human.

13

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

According to Bataille, this is also how taboos seem to have come into

effect “The taboo which lays hold on the others at the side of a corpse

is the distance they put between themselves and violence, by which they

cut themselves off from violence” (Bataille, 1986 p. 45). Apparently, for

Bataille, the relation between death, the uncanny sight of a corpse, and

violence is evident due to the horror of death irking one away whilst the

safe distance between one and death itself -since one merely gazes upon the

corpse and is not yet dead- invokes terror setting one in awe. “The horror of

the corpse as a symbol of violence and as a threat of the contagiousness of

violence…” (Bataille, 1986 p. 45). This description of Bataille is directly

relatable with the consequence of Radcliffe’s notion of terror whilst it

labeling of the sublime can be considered as something divine and out of

reach belonging to the noumenal universe which is beyond us, as opposed

to the phenomenal universe humankind resides in. Much like Plato once

suggested a distinction between the realm of Ideas and Kant’s noumenal

verses phenomenal universe, Bataille sets an identical distinction between

the sacred world beyond us which is the universe of the divine from which

taboos hail, and the profane world in which humankind tries to distance

itself from immanent death (Bataille, 1986 p. 44-45).

Following this line of thought, Shelley’s protagonist Dr. Frankenstein

seems to have violated any and every primal taboo associated with the

sacred and divine law. Even the fact that the animated creation of Dr.

Frankenstein is an assembled corpse draws attention to the protagonist’s

awkward position between the sacred and profane world. On the one hand,

he creates, breathes life, and renders a corpse animate, rescuing it from its

violated state. By doing so he assumes the role reserved for God and himself

violates a taboo. Furthermore, in alignment with Bataille’s suggestion, Dr.

Frankenstein, gazing at the monster’s corpse is horrifying. By rendering

the corpse animate and assuming a divine role, the protagonist is on the

considered more as un-dead rather than alive. Therefore, the protagonist

Dr. Frankenstein needs to distance himself from the monster of his own

creation. On the other hand, his horror gradually transforms into a feeling

taken the second step towards divinity, not only by overcoming mortality

via modern science and electricity quite like Nietzsche suggests hence,

14

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

indicating the agency of an Übermensch or in context with this article’s

assumptions the portrayal of the protagonist as an evolved Kraftmensch.

This can be again associated with the metaphor of ancient Greek

mythological creation symbolized by Zeus’ lightning bolt- since Dr.

Frankenstein uses the same method to create. But also, his reaction in

observance of his act of creation is identical to that of the God of the Old

Testament. When Victor Frankenstein animated his monster, he could only

utter the word ‘beautiful’. This is almost a replica of the Genesis narrative

where God creates humankind and the universe, “Then God said, “Let us

make people in our image, to be like ourselves. They will be masters over

all life … and he saw that it was excellent in every way (NLT, Holy Bible.

1996. Genesis 1:26-31). Taking the quote from the Bible referring to God’s

creation of mankind, the initial emphasis should be laid on the fact that

God, after the act of creating takes a step back, looks upon his creation,

and contemplates its excellence much like Dr. Frankenstein contemplates

his creation and deems it beautiful.

At this point Dr. Frankenstein’s referring to his monstrous creation as

beautiful is relevant since it is not the external beauty that is being referred

to but the beauty of creation itself. Just like the God of the Old Testament

adds to the end of each creational act where it is stated that: “…And God saw

that it was good” (NLT, Holy Bible. 1996. Genesis 1:25). This connection

efficiently showcases the agency of the Kraftmensch who creates beauty,

an irrational beauty with a hideous exterior as a defiant act against God and

the taboo regarding mortality. In this sense what Kraftmensch(-en) tried to

accomplish is to complete what God has left unfinished, and imperfect, their

aim being agency, becoming the man of action who in all irrationality has

the courage to perfect creation and overcome being human. Moreover, in

so doing imitating the divine act but also by violating the taboo associated

with the reluctance of God to let people become immortal and divine like

him by eating from the Tree of Life (NLT, Holy Bible. 1996. Genesis 3:22).

Nevertheless, the un-dead creation is not a perfected human being but

rather an animated corpse hence in alignment with Bataille’s suggestion a

distancing from it is necessary and inevitable -as also seen at the end of the

narrative- because the corpse, even though it is dead/un-dead does not stop

being a threat to the living. On the contrary “It constitutes a supernatural

peril which can be ‘caught’ from the dead body … If they had to bury the

corpse it is less in order to keep it safe then to keep themselves safe from

15

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

its contagion” (Bataille, 1986 p. 46). Although it is important to point out

that regardless of the condition of the created monster, the overreaching

accomplishment of the protagonist remains a prominent example of agency.

When the acts of Shelley’s protagonist are taken into consideration, Dr.

Kraftmensch, although he

commits all the possible divine taboo violations, he does come into the

experience of the sublime via the feeling of terror exactly as Burke and

Kant describe the experience. Moreover, the component that links any

sublime experience is also present since the created monster is not one

invoking horror – which according to Radcliffe stuns the senses- but he

is one invoking terror, who again in Radcliffe’s terminology opens the

senses, lifts the spirit, and enables the experience of the sublime (Botting,

1999 p. 26-27).

The portrayal of the Kraftmensch takes a different turn in Goethe’s The

Sorrows of Young Werther mainly because the protagonist Werther is a

precursor to its English counterpart Dr. Frankenstein which now is not the

developed Kraftmensch. David Hill argues that the main argument of the

consciousness (Hill, 2003, p. 34). Therefore, in Goethe’s narrative, the

Wilhelm, where he generally talks about his affection for Charlotte, who

is already engaged to Albert. The novel evolves around this love triangle

apart from the criticism of social classes as one of the general markers

of the movement. Even though Werther is aware that he cannot be with

Lotte, which is the focal point of the plot, his feelings intensify day by

day. Towards the end of the novel, Werther’s inner emotional turmoil

can be considered as a direct implication of his self-demise and eventual

suicide. In this sense this coining narrative of the Sturm und Drang does

not emphasize the love story but the inner world and nature of a Sturm und

Drang protagonist set on the internal evaluation within his self to gradually

progress towards the experiencing of the sublime as cited by David Hill

Welt!” (Hill, 2003, p.34), which can be loosely translated as “I turn within

that Werther can be considered as the only character in the narrative who

that choosing death -gaining agency over his own life- is always a possible

16

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

option (Hill, 2003, p. 34-35). As was discussed before since Werther can

neither create nor overcome mortality -as Dr. Frankenstein is able to and

play God- he gains the agency of his death at least in terms of when he is

to die.

Committing suicide, therefore, can be thought of as the act of agency taken

by Werther -usually reserved for God being the invisible culprit behind

all human mortality. Now Goethe’s protagonist, in a very naïve way, has

violated the taboo of taking one’s own life in the sense of playing God,

hence experiencing a subtle version of the sublime though not as grandiose

as Shelley’s protagonist. Nonetheless as a result of this action, one can state

that by violating God’s taboo regarding suicide, Werther has successfully

become a Kraftmensch. Though it is important to emphasize that Werther’s

journey is more focused on self-fulfillment and becoming one with

nature and the experiencing of the sublime which is the reflection of the

discourse of Sturm und Drang, Dr. Frankenstein’s agency, in alignment

with Romanticism is rather set on becoming the divine or rising above God

in one’s agency. In other words, as Nietzsche later posits, in overcoming

being human. However, the utilization of nature is prominent as well as

key to the aim of each narrative in regard to the experience of the sublime.

The notion of nature and the condition of the weather in Goethe’s The

Sorrows of Young Werther is a vital tool to invoke the proper circumstances

in reflecting the inner world of the protagonist’s progression to Kraftmensch

which is a direct genre marker of Sturm und Drang. Initially, the reader is

greeted by the protagonist, Werther, where he can be found in complete

harmony with nature itself, which can be an implication that he is content

with the scenery where he is free from alienation (Hill, 2003, p. 34-35).

Here, nature seems to be utilized as a metaphor of unity, of wholeness with

oneself and the universe, hence the sublime. Joyce S. Walker stated in his

article Sex, Suicide, and the Sublime: A Reading of Goethe’s “Werther”

that:

I contend that Die Leiden des Jungen Werther may be read in a way that emphasizes

the dramatic interplay of beauty and sublimity in the hero’s mind…The movement from

the beautiful to the sublime is reflected in Werther’s consciousness and projected onto

nature… (Walker, 1999 p. 208-209).

On the other hand, what Werther feels in terms of his emotions also affects

the weather around him, for example, when he meets Lotte for the first

time, due to his extreme internal emotions, a storm interrupts their dance,

reflecting Werther’s own emotions and creating a real storm which affects

17

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

nature itself or the weather conditions change in accordance with the

emotional state of the protagonist. In another example, Werther is in a

small room in a country inn writing a letter to Lotte stating that he is only

staying there due to a severe storm because he was looking for shelter

(Goethe, 2021 p. 42). Here the emphasis is on nature having an immediate

relationship with the protagonists’ conscious and unconscious mind and

emotions, which can be thought of as, yet again, an indicator of the Sturm

und Drang Movement.

Mary Shelley, throughout her narrative of Frankenstein, depicts a clear

scene in which she narrates the natural beauties and natural catastrophic

phenomena. These forces of nature can be linked with the sublime, as Kant

and Burke argued. As Radcliffe also suggests the only way of experiencing

the sublime is through the notion of terror.

In a similar manner, during Shelley’s narration, there are several depictions

of the North Pole, the Alps, and the mountains of Jura. “Storms are one

of the main sources of the sublime in nature, as they contain […] the

two main elements: danger, and therefore fear and terror, and vastness”

(Román, 2014/2015 p. 3). Therefore, it is safe to assume that those natural

phenomena are widely used throughout the narrative by Mary Shelley to

construct metaphors of the sublime. In addition, said phenomena are perfect

tools to draw a parallel with Burke and Kant’s suggestions, in terms of

Radcliffe’s terror and horror notions. It is observable that the most crucial

role nature demonstrates is that it leads to a state of awe again as described

by Kant and Burke. In terms of the sense of nature, one can argue that the

narrator is giving a visual representation of the condition of the weather

by descriptions like the sky is full of clouds, or that it is about to start

raining, or that a storm is rising and that he can hear it (Shelley, 1999 p.

59). Yet another worth mentioning example can be taken from Chapter 10

where it is stated that “The rain was pouring in torrents, and thick mists

hid the summits of mountains…” (Shelley, 1999 p. 75). All these examples

regarding the descriptions of nature and weather throughout the narrative

are not just utilized as ambient components but very purposefully engaged

Romantic and Gothic markers such as the uncanny environment and again

in line with its precursor Sturm und Drang are utilized to highlight the

18

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

experience of the sublime whilst constructing a protagonist engaged in

inner unification and unified with the universe. However, this type of

relation with nature and it being utilized as a gateway condition towards

the sublime seems only reserved for humankind. In other words, one way

or the other, whether the protagonist violates divine taboos in an effort to

mimic God or is in awe of the divine within a transcendent mind state,

human is human and confined by the laws of nature, hence is within

the agency degree mirrored by Sturm und Drang’s Kraftmensch. Any

transgression- such as Dr. Frankenstein achieving the role of life creator or

bringing an end to immortality is reflective of a higher degree of agency,

more parallel with what Nietzsche will later refer to as overcoming being

human. Though, in end effect, overcome by the force of nature itself either

by causing fatal harm or by a guilty conscience, in regard to the non-human

monster however “…the daemon can easily surpass these boundaries and

abrupt territories, demonstrates the superiority of the monster not only

over human race, but also over nature itself” (Román, 2014/2015 p. 6).

CONCLUSION

The main argumentation of this article being to place Sturm und Drang as

a precursor movement giving rise to English Romanticism, and whether

this assumption can be verified with the construct of protagonists relevant

to each movement has traced a diachrony of philosophical thought schools

evidently affecting and transforming the succeeding approaches. As was

argued previously, human nature and emotions have been neglected with

the emergence of the Industrial Revolution with science and rationalism.

Sturm und Drang, as a German-originated movement opposed this idea of

rationalism and this led to Goethe penning The Sorrows of Young Werther,

in which the author attempts to defy rationalism by giving reign to the

irrationality of emotions and urges the individual to reunite with nature

resulting in a unification with the universe whereas the English Romantic

Movement takes this aim a step further to achieve overcoming human

boundaries with a higher degree of defiance and violation.

Shelley’s Frankenstein not only creates a similar atmosphere of narration

but also goes beyond what the Stürmer und Dränger have done. Shelley

utilizes the scientific developments of the era and defies God’s taboo related

to mortality in terms of overcoming the human boundaries of perpetual

death. Therefore, it is evident that Shelley’s protagonist Dr. Frankenstein

exceeds Goethe’s protagonist, Werther, in the degree of gaining agency.

19

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

Not only does Shelley’s protagonist achieve the state of having an agency

over death, but also Goethe’s protagonist, therefore, with these violations

Kant argued. This is what Nietzsche means by Übermensch, which can be

thought of as overcoming being human. Yet it is important to keep in mind

that, as Radcliffe posits, terror is the only way to experience the sublime,

which is in both narratives Dr. Frankenstein and Werther experience.

God’s taboo and gains an agency over his own death, in contribution to the

Movement of Sturm und Drang in terms of Kraftmensch was adopted by

the Anglo-Saxon tradition and perfected by Mary Shelley. Shelley produces

Kraftmensch,

namely Dr. Victor Frankenstein in other words as Furst states: “[into the

Anglo-Saxon tradition] … was now added to the transcendentalism of the

German philosophers…”

taboo by committing suicide Dr. Frankenstein takes a more grandiose step

and animates a corpse, creating a monster, taking the role reserved for God.

of God’s taboo, as Bataille argued, which eventually promotes them as

Kraftmensch(-en). Once more taking reference from Furst, “England with

and Byron assumed the primacy which has been Germany’s. Not that there

was ever a Romantic ‘school’ in England as there had been in Germany…”

(Furst, 1968 p. 130). Hence, the interplay of German and English traditions

in relation to Sturm und Drang being a precursor of English Romanticism

Kraftmensch and how its

Dr. Victor Frankenstein.

REFERENCES

Backes, A. (1994). Revisiting “Frankenstein”: A Study in Reading and Education.

The English Journal, 83(4), 33–36. Retrieve Date: December 9, 2023. Retrieved

from https://doi.org/10.2307/821081.

Bataille, G. (1986). Erotism: Death and Sensuality. (Dalwood, M. Trans.) Walker

and Company, NY.

20

Sturm Und Drang a Precursor to the Emergence of ‘The Man of Agency’ In English Romanticism

Botting, F. (1999) Gothic. Routledge. New York, NY, The USA, and Canada.

Burke, E. (1764). A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the

Sublime and Beautiful. (4th Ed.). Library of the University of Michigan.

Furst, L. R. (1968). Romanticism in Historical Perspective. Comparative

Literature Studies, 5(2), 115–143. Retrieve Date: January 2, 2024. Retrieved

from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40467744.

Gardner, S. (1999). Routledge Philosophy Guidebook To Kant and The Critique

of Pure Reason. Routledge.

Goethe, J.W. v. (2021) The Sorrows of Young Werther. (Dillon, B. R. Trans.)

The U.S. The Project Gutenberg EBook. Retrieve Date: December 10, 2023.

Retrieved from https://www.gutenberg.org/.

Greenblatt, S. (Ed.) (2006). The Norton Anthology of English Literature (8th Ed.).

W.W. Norton Company.

Hamilton, E. (2017). Mythology Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. Hachette

Book Group, Inc. New York, NY 10104.

Hill, D. (2003) Introduction David Hill (Ed.) Volume 6 Literature of the Sturm

und Drang. Rochester, NY, The USA. Camden House.

Hogsette, D. S. (2011). Metaphysical Intersections in “Frankenstein”: Mary

Shelley’s Theistic Investigation of Scientific Materialism and Transgressive

Autonomy. Christianity and Literature, 60(4), 531–559. Retrieve Date: December

12, 2023. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44314873.

Kant, I. (2007) Oxford World‘s Classics: Immanuel Kant Critique of Judgement.

(Meredith, J. C. Trans.). Revised, Edited, and Introduced by Nicholas Walker.

KİZİLTAN, E., & DALKILIÇ, N. (2022). Elektrofizyolojinin Tarihsel Serüveni:

Galvani Sonrası Galvanizm. Mersin Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Lokman Hekim

Tıp Tarihi Ve Folklorik Tıp Dergisi, 12(2), 247-261. Retrieve Date: December 12,

2023. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31020/mutftd.1037800.

Leidner, A. C. (1989). A Titan in Extenuating Circumstances: Sturm und Drang

and the Kraftmensch. PMLA, 104(2), 178–189. Retrieve Date: December 12,

2023. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2307/462503.

New Living Translation. (1996). Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. Wheaton, Illinois.

21

International Journal of Media, Culture and Literature Volume 9Issue 1- June 2023(1 - 21)

Berkay ÇELEBİ, Esma TEZCAN

Nietzsche, F. (2006) Thus Spoke Zarathustra A Book for All and None. (Caro, A.

del Ed. &Trans.). Cambridge University Press. The UK.

Román, D. C. (2014/2015)

Alps, Scotland and the Arctic, according to Romantic and Gothic tenets like “The

Sublime. Retrieve Date: January 12, 2024. Retrieved from https://www.academia.

_Swiss_

Alps_Scotland_and_the_Arctic_according_to_Romantic_and_Gothic_tenets_

like_The_Sublime_.

Shelley, M. (1999) Frankenstein: or The Modern Prometheus. The U.S. The

Project Gutenberg EBook. Retrieve Date: December 10, 2023. Retrieved from

https://www.gutenberg.org/.

Stokoe, F. W. (1963).

. New

York Russell & Russell.

Tezcan, E. (2018) Batı Geleneğinde Aşk, Cinsellik ve Ölüm: Tristan ve İsolde

[Doctorate Dissertation, Istanbul University]. Yükseköğretim Kurumu Başkanlığı

Tez Merkezi, Dissertation No: 514399. Retrieve Date: January 3, 2024. Retrieved

from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tezSorguSonucYeni.jsp.

Walker, J. S. (1999). Sex, Suicide, and the Sublime: A Reading of Goethe’s

“Werther.” Monatshefte, 91(2), 208–223. Retrieve Date: January 2, 2024.

Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30153789