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...of Tyre’s Isagoge (“Introduction,” on Aristotle’s Categories), although these translations were not very influential. He also wrote logical treatises of his own. A short De dialectica (“On Dialectic”), doubtfully attributed to St. Augustine (354–430), shows evidence of Stoic influence, although it had little influence of its ...

...from the new interest in Plato, were the subject of many treatises, the most important of which were Giannozzo Manetti’s De dignitate et excellentia hominis (completed in 1452; On the Dignity of Man) and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola’s Oratio de hominis dignitate (written 1486; Oration on the Dignity of Man). The humanist vision ...

Figulus wrote the earliest comprehensive work on Roman religion, De diis (“Concerning the Gods”), in at least 19 books, the earliest comprehensive work on Roman religion; Commentarii grammatici, in at least 29 books, a loose collection of notes concerned with, among other matters, synonyms, inflection, orthography, word formation, syntax, and etymology; De......

In France the giants were De Dion-Bouton, Peugeot SA, and Renault (the last two are still in existence). The Italians were later in the field: the Stefanini-Martina of 1896 is thought of as the foundation of the industry in Italy, and Isotta-Fraschini was founded about 1898. Giovanni Agnelli founded Fiat SpA in 1899, saw it grow into one of the weightiest industrial complexes in the world, and......

...interested the rising mercantile class. At the same time, theology no longer dominated the classification schemes. Humanism reached its full expression in the Spanish philosopher Juan Luis Vives’ De disciplinis (1531), in which all the compiler’s arguments were grounded on nature and made no appeal to religious authority. The printing press had eliminated one of the most ve...

...in the Battle of Fontenoy (841) against Lothar I, Charles’s eldest half brother. In the same year Charles requested that Nithard write an account of recent events. The resulting four-volume Historiae or De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii (“On the Dissensions of the Sons of Louis the Pious”) deals with the discord between the sons of Louis during the years...

German monk who wrote De diversis artibus (c. 1110–40; also called Schedula diversarum artium), an exhaustive account of the techniques of almost all the known crafts of the first half of the 12th century. From his writings it can be deduced that Theophilus was of the Benedictine order and that he was a practicing craftsman. He may have been the celebrated German......

...of Nyssa, the Pseudo-Dionysius, and Maximus the Confessor. His views were much disapproved of by the Western church; and his great philosophical work, the Periphyseon (usually known as De divisione naturae [On the Division of Nature]), was not much read and ceased to be copied after his condemnation in 1210. But a considerable part of the text circulated in the form of......

...received the approbation of Pope Benedict III. Controversy with the imperial family sharpened in 860, when Hincmar, responding to the attempt of Lothar II of Lorraine to repudiate his wife, wrote De divortio Lotharii et Teutbergae (“On the Divorce of Lothar and Teutberga”), the fullest apology to that time for Christian opposition to divorce....

A model of the “Renaissance man” because of his disciplined and varied learning, Cusa was skilled in theology, mathematics, philosophy, science, and the arts. In De docta ignorantia (1440; “On Learned Ignorance”) he described the learned man as one who is aware of his own ignorance. In this and other works he typically borrowed symbols from geometry to demonstrat...

...Milton never completed it. The unfinished manuscript was discovered in the Public Record Office in London in 1823, translated from Latin into English by Charles Sumner and published in 1825 as A Treatise on Christian Doctrine. The comprehensive and systematic theology presented in this work reflects Milton’s close engagement with Scripture, from which he draws numerous proof...

The early Church Father St. Augustine made one of the earliest efforts to write a rhetoric for the Christian orator. Book IV of On Christian Doctrine is usually considered the first rhetorical theory specifically designed for the minister. Of course, the kind of truth to which Augustine sought to give verbal effectiveness was the “revealed” truth as contained in the......

He complemented this activity with his political treatises on divine and civil dominion (De dominio divino libri tres and Tractatus de civili dominio), in which he argued men exercised “dominion” (the word is used of possession and authority) straight from God and that if they were in a state of mortal sin, then their dominion was in appearance only. The righteous......

...in the Cuba of the 1950s. It was well received. His most important book, however, was the highly experimental novel De donde son los cantantes (1967; From Cuba with a Song). The book includes three narratives that encompass the entire history of Cuba and aspire to give a global view of its culture. An even more experimental novel followed,......

Legislation at the end of the 13th century (statute De donis conditionalibus, 1285) allowed a conveyor of land to limit its inheritance to the direct descendants of the conveyee and to claim it back if the conveyee’s direct line died out (fee tail). (See also entail.) In one of their few deviations from the principle of consolidating the power to...

Legislation at the end of the 13th century (statute De donis conditionalibus, 1285) allowed a conveyor of land to limit its inheritance to the direct descendants of the conveyee and to claim it back if the conveyee’s direct line died out (fee tail). (See also entail.) In one of their few deviations from the principle of consolidating the power to...

...favour of predestination in his last years appear in De praedestinatione sanctorum (429; The Predestination of the Blessed) and De dono perseverantiae (429; The Gift of Perseverance)....

...Páleč, wrote a large number of polemical treatises against him, which he answered in an equally vigorous manner. The most important of his treatises was De ecclesia (The Church). He also wrote a large number of treatises in Czech and a collection of sermons entitled Postilla....

...when Pope Boniface VIII made him archbishop of Bourges, Fr. During the political conflict between Boniface and King Philip IV the Fair of France, Giles wrote, in 1301, a defense of the pope, De ecclesiastica potestate (“On the Church Power”); he proposed that the pope must have direct political power over the whole of mankind....

...This he thought should be arranged as a cyclic period of great length, and he worked out the system that is known as the Julian period. He published his proposals in Paris in 1583 under the title De Emendatione Temporum....

...Cilicia, Syria, Palestine, and perhaps also in Spain (c. 1110–25) before returning to Bath, Eng., and becoming a teacher of the future king Henry II. In his Platonizing dialogue De eodem et diverso (“On Sameness and Diversity”), his atomism and his attempt to reconcile the reality of universals with that of individuals distinguish him from other Platonists.......

Prochorus’ own treatise, De essentia et operatione Dei (“On the Essence and Activity of God”), vigorously disputed the mystical theology of another Athonite monk, Gregory Palamas. Cited before the Synod of Constantinople in 1368 by the Palamite patriarch Philotheus Coccinus, the brothers Cydones were charged with heresy; Prochorus was expelled from the priesthood...

British historian of the 6th century. A monk, he founded a monastery in Brittany known after him as St. Gildas de Rhuys. His De excidio et conquestu Britanniae (“The Overthrow and Conquest of Britain”), one of the few sources for the country’s post-Roman history, contains the story of the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus and the defeat of the Saxons at Mons Badonicus...

It was the rebirth of anatomy during the Renaissance, as exemplified by the work of Andreas Vesalius (De Humani Corporis Fabrica, 1543) that made it possible to distinguish the abnormal, as such (e.g., an aneurysm), from the normal anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci dissected 30 corpses and noted “abnormal anatomy”; Michelangelo, too, performed a number of dissections.......

...censuses refer to a precisely delimited territory and subareas and, for this reason, are normally planned and conducted with the aid of detailed maps. They aim to enumerate every person within the designated territory. A “de jure” census tallies people according to their regular or legal residence, whereas a “de facto” census allocates them to the place where......

...was also the author of the lengthy treatises De incantationibus (1556; “On Incantations”), which proposed a natural explanation of several reputedly miraculous phenomena, and De fato (1567; “On Fate”), which discusses predestination and free will....

Filtration systems are varied in design, operation, and application. The most traditional system is diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration, in which DE is used to aggregate and collect suspended solids. The DE is collected on filter paper inside the pressure filter as the juice passes through the unit. The resulting juice is sparkling clear. Owing to concern over the cost of DE and its disposal,......

...of philosophy, which proved instrumental in St. Augustine’s conversion; the difficult Academica (Academic Philosophy), which defends suspension of judgement; De finibus, or The Supreme Good (Is it pleasure, virtue, or something more complex?); and De officiis (Moral Obligation). Except in the last book of De officiis, Cicero lays no claim ...

American lawyer, editor, and reformer, one of the first women in the American West to speak and campaign for women’s rights, who also pioneered in professions normally reserved for men....

American inventor of the Audion vacuum tube, which made possible live radio broadcasting and became the key component of all radio, telephone, radar, television, and computer systems before the invention of the transistor in 1947. Although bitter over the financial e...

Jacobi’s De Formatione et Proprietatibus Determinantium (1841; “Concerning the Structure and Properties of Determinants”) made pioneering contributions to the theory of determinants. He invented the functional determinant (formed from the n2 differential coefficients of n given functions with n independent variables) that bears his ...

Fabricius’ De Formato Foetu (1600; “On the Formation of the Fetus”), summarizing his investigations of the fetal development of many animals, including man, contained the first detailed description of the placenta and opened the field of comparative embryology. He also gave the first full account of the larynx as a vocal organ and was first to demonstrate that the pupil...

...imperial mathematician was a work that broke with the theoretical principles of Ptolemaic astrology. Called De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (1601; Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology), this work proposed to make astrology “more certain” by basing it on new physical and harmonic principles. It showed both th...

French painter, sculptor, and printmaker who was prominent in the Impressionist group and widely celebrated for his images of Parisian life. Degas’s principal subject was the human—especially the female—figure, which he explored in works ranging from the sombre portraits of his early years to the studies of laundresses, cabaret singers, milliners, and prosti...

politician and prime minister of Italy (1945–53) who contributed to the material and moral reconstruction of his nation after World War II....

Andreotti was long active in journalism and was a cofounder of his party’s daily newspaper, Il Popolo. He was the author of De Gasperi e il suo tempo (1956; “De Gasperi and His Time”) and other books. The collapse of the Christian Democratic Party in the mid-1990s left Andreotti vulnerable to prosecution on various charges...

Cherokee chief who signed the treaty forcing tribal removal of the Cherokees from Georgia and who later served as brigadier general in the Confederate Army during the U.S. Civil War. Watie learned to speak English when, at the age of 12, he was sent to a mission school. He later helped an older brother publish the Cherokee Phoenix, a tribal newspaper....

French soldier, writer, statesman, and architect of France’s Fifth Republic....

Swedish entomologist....

Swedish geologist, originator of the varve-counting method used in geochronology....

...power had in reality gradually passed into the hands of the privy council, which, under the leadership of the minister of finance, Baron Johan August Gripenstedt, and the minister of justice, Baron Louis De Geer, completed the reforms. From the beginning of the 19th century, the most important of the liberal demands had been for a reform of the system of representation. It was not until......

...his late writings on Dante, and perhaps an occasional lyric. Turning instead to Latin, he devoted himself to humanist scholarship rather than to imaginative or poetic creation. His encyclopaedic De genealogia deorum gentilium (“On the Genealogy of the Gods of the Gentiles”), medieval in structure but humanist in spirit, was probably begun in the very year of his meeting wit...

...later known, misleadingly, as The History of Animals, to which Aristotle added two short treatises, On the Parts of Animals and On the Generation of Animals. Although Aristotle did not claim to have founded the science of zoology, his detailed observations of a wide variety of organisms were quite without precedent.......

The German scholar Johann Friedrich Blumenbach is recognized as the father of physical anthropology for his work De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa (“On the Natural Variety of Mankind”), published in 1775 or 1776. He also regarded language as an important distinguishing characteristic of man, but added that it is only man who is capable of laughing and crying. Perhaps most......

...of Hippo (354–430). In his Confessions Augustine mentions two experiences of “touching” or “attaining” God. Later, in the Literal Commentary on Genesis, he introduced a triple classification of visions—corporeal, spiritual (i.e., imaginative), and intellectual—that influenced later mystics for......

...Manuscripts give the title De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii to the first two books and entitle the remaining seven De arte grammatica, De arte dialectica, De arte rhetorica, De geometrica, De arithmetica, De astrologia, and De harmonia. Mercury gives his bride, who is made divine, seven maidens, and each declaims on that one of the seven liberal arts that she......

...the publication of the fifth edition of the Essays, the first to contain the 13 chapters of Book III, as well as Books I and II, enriched with many additions. He also met Marie de Gournay, an ardent and devoted young admirer of his writings. De Gournay, a writer herself, is mentioned in the Essays as Montaigne’s “covenant daughter...

...(fl. c. 1040). But it was not until late in the 11th century that serious interest in logic revived. St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) discussed semantical questions in his De grammatico, and investigated the notions of possibility and necessity in surviving fragments, but these texts did not have much influence. More important was Anselm’s general method of using...

...Massilia (Marseille); Vincent, a monk of the celebrated Abbey of Lérins; and Faustus, bishop of Riez, a former monk and abbot at Lérins, who at the request of Provence bishops wrote De gratia (“Concerning Grace”), in which semi-Pelagianism was given its final form and one more naturalistic than that provided by Cassian....

...the Letter) comes from an early moment in the controversy, is relatively irenic, and beautifully sets forth his point of view. De gratia Christi et de peccato originali (418; On the Grace of Christ and on Original Sin) is a more methodical exposition. The hardest positions Augustine takes in favour of predestination in his last years appear in De......

river in northwestern Western Australia. It rises as the Oakover River in the Robertson Range, 150 miles (240 km) southeast of Marble Bar, and flows north. Midway in its course, it turns northwest to join the Nullagine River and becomes the De Grey. The seasonally intermittent stream, the principal tributaries of which are the Shaw and Coorgan rivers, enters the Indian Ocean at Breaker Inlet, 40 ...

Dutch jurist and scholar whose masterpiece De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625; On the Law of War and Peace) is considered one of the greatest contributions to the development of international law. Also a statesman and diplomat, Grotius has been called the “father of international law.”...

...party of Orange and the republican States Party and its effects on the Dutch Republic’s foreign policy, themes that were to become dominant in many of his later works. A collection of articles, De Groot-Nederlandsche gedachte, appeared in 1925 (a second volume was added in 1930), dealing with the concept of unity in the history of Holland and Flanders and generally sympathetic to ...

Aleandro’s chief work is his unfinished treatise De habendo Concilio, setting forth his views on the Council of Trent, of which he was an ardent supporter. This and other documents of Aleandro in the Vatican Library, relating to his opposition to Luther, were used in Sforza Pallavicino’s Istoria del Concilio Tridentino (1656; “History of the Council of Trent...

...in Stockholm, where he devoted much of his time to writing the history of Sweden from Gustav II Adolf (1594–1632) to Charles X Gustav (1622–60). In 1687 he published Of the Nature and Qualification of Religion in Reference to Civil Society, which set forth the civil superiority of the state over the church but also defended the church’s power in......

...et Mercurii to the first two books and entitle the remaining seven De arte grammatica, De arte dialectica, De arte rhetorica, De geometrica, De arithmetica, De astrologia, and De harmonia. Mercury gives his bride, who is made divine, seven maidens, and each declaims on that one of the seven liberal arts that she represents. The prose style is often dry, but in parts ...

...of his uncle, the scholar Milo of Saint-Amand; mention of him is found at Nevers, Saint-Amand, Saint-Omer, and Reims. Hucbald was an abbot and apparently spent his life teaching. His treatise De harmonica institutione describes the gamut (the series of recognized musical notes) and the eight modes. He also wrote poems, metrical prayers, and hymns....

...During World War I he worked as chief designer and test pilot for the Aircraft Manufacturing Company and produced a number of successful fighters and light bombers. In September 1920 he formed the De Havilland Aircraft Company. The success of the Moth, a light two-seater, made the company financially successful and started the flying club movement in Great Britain. In World War II the......

...production, the government enlisted automobile manufacturers to mass-produce engines and airplanes. For its own use the U.S. Army ordered the production of the two-seat British De Havilland DH-4 bomber and the American-designed Curtiss JN-4 Jennie trainer. By the end of the war 4,500 DH-4s had been built in the United States, 1,213 of which were shipped to Europe. Although American......

British twin-engine, two-seat, mid-wing bomber aircraft that was adapted to become the prime night fighter of the Allies during World War II. The Mosquito had a frame of wood and a skin of plywood, and it was glued and screwed together in England, Canada, and Australia. The plane was designed in 1938 and entered service in 1941....

...international dealer networks. Other companies that produced planes for corporate use and small “feeder” airlines fared better. The twin-engine De Havilland (later, Hawker Siddeley) Dove arrived in 1945 as a low-wing design with retractable gear and a capacity for 11 passengers. It remained in production through the 1960s, with 554 Doves built, including 200 for military......

...test pilot for the Aircraft Manufacturing Company and produced a number of successful fighters and light bombers. In September 1920 he formed the De Havilland Aircraft Company. The success of the Moth, a light two-seater, made the company financially successful and started the flying club movement in Great Britain. In World War II the company’s most successful product was the twin-engine...

American motion-picture actress remembered for the lovely and gentle ingenues of her early career as well as for the later, more substantial roles she fought to secure....

English aircraft designer, manufacturer, and pioneer in long-distance jet flying. He was one of the first to make jet-propelled aircraft, producing the Vampire and Venom jet fighters....

...Aristotle, Theophrastus was a keen observer, although his works do not express the depth of original thought exemplified by his teacher. In his great work, De historia et causis plantarum (The Calendar of Flora, 1761), in which the morphology, natural history, and therapeutic use of plants are described, Theophrastus distinguished between the external parts, which he called organs...

writer and collaborator with Betje Wolff (q.v.) on the first Dutch novel, De historie van mejuffrouw Sara Burgerhart, 2 vol. (1782; “The History of Miss Sara Burgerhart”)....

...edge of the wooded-heath Veluwe region. Founded in the 8th century by the Saxons, it is a garrison town with a 15th-century church, the Doesburger Mill (1507), and an open-air theatre. Nearby De Hoge Veluwe National Park has St. Hubertus Castle and the Kröller-Müller State Museum. The latter institution has an outstanding collection of paintings by the Dutch artist Vincent van......

...phenomena to principles about the sizes, shapes, positions, speeds, and paths of parts of matter. His great trilogy—De Corpore (1655; “Concerning Body”), De Homine (1658; “Concerning Man”), and De Cive (1642; “Concerning the Citizen”)—was his attempt to arrange the various pieces of natural science, a...

...with admiration. The themes of the dignity and excellence of man were prominent in Italian humanist thought and can be found clearly expressed in Giovanni Pico della Mirandola’s influential De hominis dignitate oratio (Oration on the Dignity of Man), written in 1486. In this work Pico expresses a view of man that breaks radically with Greek and Christian tradition: what......

With NATO struggling to overcome a fractious membership divided over the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, it chose Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, a career civil servant turned politician, to serve as its 11th secretary-general, beginning on Jan. 1, 2004. He was the third Dutchman to lead the 26-member alliance, succeeding Great Britain’s George Robertson. The new secretary-general was regarded by his ...

With NATO struggling to overcome a fractious membership divided over the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, it chose Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, a career civil servant turned politician, to serve as its 11th secretary-general, beginning on Jan. 1, 2004. He was the third Dutchman to lead the 26-member alliance, succeeding Great Britain’s George Robertson. The new secretary-general was regarded by his ...

It was the rebirth of anatomy during the Renaissance, as exemplified by the work of Andreas Vesalius (De Humani Corporis Fabrica, 1543) that made it possible to distinguish the abnormal, as such (e.g., an aneurysm), from the normal anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci dissected 30 corpses and noted “abnormal anatomy”; Michelangelo, too, performed a number of dissections.......

It was the rebirth of anatomy during the Renaissance, as exemplified by the work of Andreas Vesalius (De Humani Corporis Fabrica, 1543) that made it possible to distinguish the abnormal, as such (e.g., an aneurysm), from the normal anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci dissected 30 corpses and noted “abnormal anatomy”; Michelangelo, too, performed a number of dissections.......

...in the clear Tuscan prose he had helped to regularize and refine. Although the republicanism of Florence was now eclipsed, and Alberti now moved as a familiar in the circle of the princely Lorenzo de’ Medici, De iciarchia (“On the Man of Excellence and Ruler of His Family”) represents in full flower the public-spirited Humanism of the earlier bourgeois age to w...

Three dissertations that he presented on obtaining this post indicate the interest and direction of his thought at this time. In one, De Igne (On Fire), he argued that bodies operate on one another through the medium of a uniformly diffused elastic and subtle matter that is the underlying substance of both heat and light. His first teaching was in mathematics and physics, and he was......

...reflect those of the Neoplatonic school of Chartres, Fr., and the mystical tradition centred at the Abbey of St. Victor in Paris. Two of his works, De anima (“On the Soul”) and De immortalitate animae (“On the Immortality of the Soul”), suggest the Neoplatonic argument for the soul’s natural immortality that markedly influenced later Schol...

...consists in his moral virtue. A master of the Scholastic treatise, which formulates objections to its thesis and proceeds to overcome them, Pomponazzi was also the author of the lengthy treatises De incantationibus (1556; “On Incantations”), which proposed a natural explanation of several reputedly miraculous phenomena, and De fato (1567; “On Fate”), wh...

...studied at Padua, Florence, and Bologna and obtained degrees in the arts and medicine. From 1390 to 1406 he was professor of logic at Padua. Following his return to the papal court he composed De ingenuis moribus et liberalibus studiis (1402–03; “On Noble Customs and Liberal Studies of Adolescents”), the most influential of Italian Renaissance educational......

Aristotle’s writings show that even he realized that there is more to logic than syllogistic. The De interpretatione, like the Prior Analytics, deals mainly with general propositions beginning with Every, No, or Some. But its main concern is not to link these propositions to each other in syllogisms but to explore the relation...

...1678), Liber fornacum (Book of Furnaces, 1678), De investigatione perfectionis (The Investigation of Perfection, 1678), and De inventione veritatis (The Invention of Verity, 1678). They are the clearest expression of alchemical theory and the most important set of laboratory directions to appear before the 16th century. Accordingly, they were......

...Summa perfectionis magisterii (The Sum of Perfection or the Perfect Magistery, 1678), Liber fornacum (Book of Furnaces, 1678), De investigatione perfectionis (The Investigation of Perfection, 1678), and De inventione veritatis (The Invention of Verity, 1678). They are the clearest expression of alchemical theory and the most important set....

...of a son; Ad Helviam matrem, Seneca’s mother on his exile; Ad Polybium, the powerful freedman Polybius on the loss of a son but with a sycophantic plea for recall from Corsica. The De ira deals at length with the passion of anger, its consequences, and control. The De clementia, an exhortatory address to Nero, commends mercy as the sovereign quality for a Roma...

...who was largely concerned with the writing of a history of religion—a summary statement of Christian doctrine and life from earliest times. Lactantius also wrote a not unimportant work, De ira Dei (313), on the possibility of anger in God. It poses a problem of how to deal with the essentially Greek, or philosophic, view that God cannot feel anger because he is not subject to......

...of the ancient Middle East. The Roman poet Virgil’s Aeneid and Eclogues reflect Egyptian, Semitic, and Anatolian, as well as Greek, antecedents. The Greek biographer Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride (“Concerning Isis and Osiris”) is still the best description of the Egyptian myth of Isis and Osiris and of the cult of the dead. The Greek satirist Lu...

...de la Riva, whose Libro delle tre scritture (1274; “Book of the Three Scriptures”) anticipates Dante, and the Franciscan from Verona, Giacomino da Verona, author of De Jerusalem celesti (c. 1250; “On the Heavenly Jerusalem”) and De Babilonia civitate infernali (c. 1250; “On the Infernal Babylonian State”), were the...

...a secretary at the Florentine court, where he lived in outward conformity to the Roman Catholic church for 12 years. After three more years spent at Basel in the study of Scripture, he wrote De Jesu Christo servatore (completed 1578, published 1594), his most important work....

Fiction about foreign lands boasted at least one modern American master in Meindert De Jong, whose most sensitive work was drawn from recollections of his Dutch early childhood. A Hans Christian Andersen and Newbery winner, he is best savoured in The Wheel on the School (1954), and especially in the intuitive Journey from Peppermint Street (1968). The historical novel fared less......

...of 1761) as well as new ones (Six Trios for Two Violins and Cello, G 83–88, and Symphony in D Major, G 500, of 1766 and c. 1766?). From Boccherini’s contact with Madame Brillon de Jouy, the harpsichordist, came the Six Sonatas for Harpsichord and Violin, G 25–30....

While in Paris, Grotius published his legal masterpiece, De Jure Belli ac Pacis, in 1625. In writing this work, which made full use of De Jure Praedae, he was strongly influenced by the bitter, violent political struggles both in his own country and in Europe more broadly, particularly the Thirty Years’ War, which had broken out in 1618. In one famous passage of......

...1598 Italian jurist Alberico Gentili (1552–1608), considered the originator of the secular school of thought in international law, published De jure belli libri tres (1598; Three Books on the Law of War), which contained a comprehensive discussion of the laws of war and treaties. Gentili’s work initiated a transformation of the law of nature from a theolo...

...1598 Italian jurist Alberico Gentili (1552–1608), considered the originator of the secular school of thought in international law, published De jure belli libri tres (1598; Three Books on the Law of War), which contained a comprehensive discussion of the laws of war and treaties. Gentili’s work initiated a transformation of the law of nature from a theolo...

Modern censuses refer to a precisely delimited territory and subareas and, for this reason, are normally planned and conducted with the aid of detailed maps. They aim to enumerate every person within the designated territory. A “de jure” census tallies people according to their regular or legal residence, whereas a “de facto” census allocates them to the place where......

...were widely read in his time; his Greek editions and Latin translations of the New Testament were basic sources for the Geneva Bible and the King James Version (1611). His De jure magistratum (1574; “On the Rights of the Magistrate”), defending the right of revolt against tyranny, grew out of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day (1572), from which....

Pufendorf left Heidelberg in 1668 to accept the chair of natural law at the new University of Lund in Sweden, where he spent 20 fruitful years. In 1672 he published his great work, Of the Law of Nature and Nations. The following year he published an excerpt from it, titled The Whole Duty of Man According to the Law of Nature, in which Pufendorf departed from the......

...produce a work legally defending the action on the ground that, by claiming a monopoly on the right of trade, Spain-Portugal had deprived the Dutch of their natural trading rights. The work, De Jure Praedae (On the Law of Prize and Booty), remained unpublished during his lifetime, except for one chapter—in which Grotius defends free access to the ocean for all.....

...Elizabeth I and that resulted eventually in Mary’s execution. Under the several succeeding regents, he was tutor to the young king James VI (the future James I of England) and held other offices. De jure regni apud Scotos (1579), the most important of his political writings, was a resolute assertion of limited monarchy in dialogue form; Rerum Scoticarum historia (1582), whi...

prominent German officer who fought for the Continental Army in the American Revolution....

politician who as president of South Africa (1989–94) brought the apartheid system of racial segregation to an end and negotiated a transition to majority rule in his country. He and Nelson Mandela jointly received the 1993 Nobel Prize for Peace for their collaboration in efforts to establish nonracial democracy in South Africa....

politician who as president of South Africa (1989–94) brought the apartheid system of racial segregation to an end and negotiated a transition to majority rule in his country. He and Nelson Mandela jointly received the 1993 Nobel Prize for Peace for their collaboration in efforts to establish nonracial democracy in South Africa....

...Catholic and Dutch Reformed churches, and the modern synagogue. There is a technical school for textiles, as well as the University of Twente (1961), and Enschede is the triennial meeting place of De Kogge, an association of Dutch, Flemish, and German writers. Boekelo is a summer resort. Enschede metropolitan area is contiguous with Hengelo. Pop. (2007 est.) 154,476....