winter

the environmental devastation that certain scientists contend would probably result from the hundreds of nuclear explosions in a nuclear war. The damaging effects of the light, heat, blast, and radiation caused by nuclear explosions had long been known to scientists, but such explosions’ indirect effects on the environment remained largely ignored for decades. In the 1970s, however, several studies posited that the layer of ozone in the stratosphere that shields living things from much of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation might be depleted by the large amounts of nitrogen oxides produced by nuclear explosions. Further studies speculated that large amounts of dust kicked up into the atmosphere by nuclear explosions might block sunlight from reaching the Earth’s surface, leading to a temporary cooling of the air. Scientists then began to take into account the smoke produced by vast forests set ablaze by nuclear fireballs, and in 1983 an ambitious study, known as the TTAPS study (from the initials of the last names of its authors, R.P. Turco, O.B. Toon, T.P. Ackerman, J.B. Pollack, and Carl Sagan), took into consideration the crucial factor of smoke and soot arising from the burning petroleum fuels and plastics in nuclear-devastated cities. (Smoke from such materials absorbs sunlight much more effectively than smoke from burning wood.) The TTAPS study coined the term “nuclear winter,” and its ominous hypotheses about the environmental effects of a nuclear war came under intensive study by both the American and Soviet scientific communities.

American comedian who was once described by talk-show host Jack Paar as “pound for pound, the funniest man alive.”

(1900–68). In his criticism, Yvor Winters held that literature should be evaluated for its moral and intellectual content as well as for its aesthetic appeal. He was also an influential teacher and poet.

People who live in regions that experience cold, snowy winters have long enjoyed winter sports such as ice skating, skiing, and sledding. These activities have grown immensely in popularity over the years. Today thousands of resorts cater to the winter tourist trade, and millions of people each year take winter sports vacations. Many athletes also pursue these sports competitively. The Olympic Winter Games, first held in 1924, have become one of the most celebrated sporting festivals in the world, showcasing both traditional and relatively new winter sports.

term for environmental devastation predicted as consequence of hundreds of nuclear explosions in a nuclear war; certain scientists contended that such explosions would deplete Earth's protective ozone layer and send up smoke, soot, and dust that would block sunlight, causing a temporary cooling of Earth's surface; the resulting semidarkness, extreme cold, and high radiation levels would destroy much vegetation and animal life and trigger a massive death toll.

Biathlon is a winter sport that combines cross-country skiing with rifle sharpshooting. It originated in Scandinavia and was first included in the Olympics in 1960. Competitors cover a course, carrying a single-shot rifle and ammunition and stopping at four points to fire five shots at small targets. There are a variety of race types, including relay, sprint, and pursuit.

Winter is not only the best time to feed birds—it is the most necessary time. It is then that insects, seeds, and berries are hard to find. Feeding is most important after ice storms and heavy snowfalls have covered natural food supplies. If feeding is begun it must be kept up until spring. Birds become dependent on a food tray. They may suffer or even die if feeding is stopped in midwinter.

The climate of the archipelago is cool in summer and cold in winter. Annual rainfall varies widely, from 20 to 180 inches (500 to 4,600 millimeters).

Farmers raise barley as either a winter crop or a spring crop. Winter barley is planted in the fall. After growing a little, it rests through the winter and then starts growing again in the spring. Harvesting of winter barley typically takes place in mid-summer. In North America and western Europe barley is more commonly planted in the spring and harvested in late summer.

Lemmings are about 4 to 7 inches (10 to 18 centimeters) long including the short tail. The body is chunky, which helps the animal stay warm in cold weather. The soft fur is grayish or reddish brown on top and paler below. The fur gets thicker in winter. Many lemmings of the Arctic have fur that turns totally white in winter.

Because of its size, Canada has great variety in its climate. The most common weather feature between regions is very cold and long winters. Winter and summer temperatures are most moderate along the Pacific coast. In the Arctic islands, periods of daylight and darkness last six months and summers are brief and cool.

Cuckoos are found throughout the world. They tend to hide in thick vegetation. Two kinds of cuckoos in North America are the black-billed cuckoo and the yellow-billed cuckoo. These birds migrate to the tropics for the winter. The common cuckoo is found throughout Europe and most of Asia. This bird migrates to Africa for the winter.