(Translated by https://www.hiragana.jp/)
Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20090213031454/http://www.britannica.com:80/bps/browse/alpha/i/43
Skip this Advertisement

A-Z Browse

  • International Prime Meridian Conference (standards conference)
    ...problem, Fleming advocated the adoption of a standard, or mean, time with hourly variations from it according to a system of time zones. His efforts were instrumental in the convening (1884) of the International Prime Meridian Conference in Washington, D.C., at which the current internationally accepted system of standard time zones was adopted. Fleming was also a forceful advocate of a......
  • International Pro Hockey League (sports organization)
    ...in Houghton, Michigan. The team, the Portage Lakers, was owned by a dentist named J.L. Gibson, who imported Canadian players. In 1904 Gibson formed the first acknowledged professional league, the International Pro Hockey League. Canada accepted professional hockey in 1908 when the Ontario Professional Hockey League was formed. By that time Canada had become the centre of world hockey....
  • International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (UN program)
    ...current goals is to identify and resolve the “worst forms” of child labour; these are defined as any form of labour that negatively impacts a child’s normal development. In 1992 the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) was created as a new department of the ILO. Through programs it operates around the world, IPEC seeks the removal of children fr...
  • International Puppeteers Union
    ...meeting each other and seeing each other’s performances at international festivals of the puppet theatre. These festivals now take place almost every year and are usually sponsored by UNIMA, the Union Internationale de la Marionnette, an international society of puppeteers. Originally founded in 1929 and reconstituted in 1957, UNIMA has members in some 65 countries and provides a common....
  • International Quilt Festival (international festival)
    The International Quilt Festival, founded by Karey Bresenhan in 1974, holds an annual conference in Houston, Texas. Other groups include the American Quilt Study Group, National Quilting Association, Quilt Heritage Foundation, International Quilt Association, and Alliance for American Quilts. Many state and local guilds actively promote quilting for education and charitable purposes....
  • International Radio and Television Organization
    ...than 40 associate members, including the United States and most Commonwealth and former French colonial countries, as well as Japan and several Latin-American countries. A parallel organization, the International Radio and Television Organization, was created in 1950 to serve nearly all Communist countries (excluding Yugoslavia) and allies of the Communist bloc....
  • International Rapids (region, North America)
    The St. Lawrence of the International Rapids section forms a clearly defined region extending from Kingston to above Montreal, where the presence of sudden breaks of gradient in the riverbed, the necessity of a navigable route between Montreal and southern Ontario, and the regional needs for power have led to the creation of hydroelectric stations, canals, and a major part of the St. Lawrence......
  • International Red Cross (charitable organization)
    humanitarian agency with national affiliates in almost every country in the world. The Red Cross movement began with the founding of the International Committee for the Relief of the Wounded (now the International Committee of the Red Cross) in 1863; it was established to care for victims of battle in time of war, but later national Red Cross societies were created to aid in the...
  • International Refugee Organization (historical UN agency)
    (IRO), temporary specialized agency of the United Nations that, between its formal establishment in 1946 and its termination in January 1952, assisted refugees and displaced persons in many countries of Europe and Asia who either could not return to their countries of origin or were unwilling to return for political reasons. Beginning operations on July 1, 1947, the IRO took ov...
  • International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
    ...has brought near-uniformity to regulations governing ship operation and aspects of ship design and equipage that bear on safety. Nearly all the world’s maritime states, for example, have adopted the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (known as COLREGS). These were originally based on British rules formulated in 1862 and made internationally effective after a serie...
  • international relations (politics)
    history of world diplomacy and events from the period of World War I to the last decade of the 20th century....
  • international relations, study of (political and social science)
    the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organizations and certain subnational entities (e.g., bureaucracies, political parties, and interest groups). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, ...
  • international religion
    ...factor in that system was “social justice,” whereby the weak was always protected in conflicts of interest with the strong. This had an important place in what may be called “international religion”—i.e., that governing relations between men from different areas belonging to different cults. That level of religion, called “fear of the gods,...
  • International Rescue Committee (international organization)
    international humanitarian aid organization based in the United States and Europe. Organized in 1933 at the request of Albert Einstein to assist German victims and enemies of Nazism, the IRC has since supported a wide variety of groups that are persecuted or displaced because of ethnic conflicts, war, or environmental crises. The IRC has headquarters in New Yo...
  • International Rice Research Institute (international agricultural organization)
    ...and the yield per acre for cereals has increased substantially since the late 1960s. These improved yields can be attributed to partnership between international organizations, such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, and national agricultural research stations. Thus, in the case of rice, countries have adapted the IRRI strains to local conditions......
  • International Roots Festival (festival, The Gambia)
    ...beaches, diverse birdlife, and pleasant climate between October and April. Tourism declined after the 1994 coup, but efforts to revive it had met with some success by the end of the 1990s. The International Roots Festival, an annual heritage celebration created in 1996, attracts members of the African diaspora from around the world. Several luxury hotels have been built near Banjul.......
  • International Rose Test Garden (garden, Portland, Oregon, United States)
    This heavily forested city contains more than 14 square miles (36 square km) of parkland, including the 5,000-acre (2,000-hectare) Forest Park on the northwest side. The International Rose Test Garden (established in 1917), with hundreds of varieties of roses, is one of several cultivated green spaces throughout the city; there is also an arboretum, a botanic garden, and Chinese and Japanese......
  • International Rowing Federation (sports organization)
    Local and national organizations, amateur and professional, were formed in this period, and in 1892 the Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d’Aviron (FISA; the International Rowing Federation) was founded. Events in rowing (for crews of eight, four, and two) and in sculling were established. In races for eights and for some fours and pairs, there is also a......
  • International Rugby Board (sports organization)
    ...served in that capacity for several years. In 1956 he became president of the South African Rugby Board (SARB), a position he held until his death in 1993. In 1959 he was elevated to chairman of the International Rugby Football Board (IRB)....
  • International Rugby Football Board (sports organization)
    ...served in that capacity for several years. In 1956 he became president of the South African Rugby Board (SARB), a position he held until his death in 1993. In 1959 he was elevated to chairman of the International Rugby Football Board (IRB)....
  • International Rule (yachting)
    Metric classes were created by the International Rule, adopted in 1906, which was more complex than the Universal Rule but retained many of its factors. In the late 1920s the 6-, 8-, and 12-Metre International Rule classes became popular. The 12-Metre-class yachts were used in a revival of the America’s Cup competition beginning in 1958, but most other rating classes were inactive after Wor...
  • International Rules of the Road
    ...has brought near-uniformity to regulations governing ship operation and aspects of ship design and equipage that bear on safety. Nearly all the world’s maritime states, for example, have adopted the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (known as COLREGS). These were originally based on British rules formulated in 1862 and made internationally effective after a serie...
  • International Sailing Federation (sports organization)
    ...has brought near-uniformity to regulations governing ship operation and aspects of ship design and equipage that bear on safety. Nearly all the world’s maritime states, for example, have adopted the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (known as COLREGS). These were originally based on British rules formulated in 1862 and made internationally effective after a serie...
  • International School of Nuclear Science and Engineering (school, Argonne, Illinois, United States)
    The International School of Nuclear Science and Engineering was established at Argonne National Laboratory in 1955. The school was created to meet the international need for trained scientists and engineers, and its program was conducted jointly by Argonne National Laboratory, North Carolina State College, and Pennsylvania State University. Basic course work was presented at the universities in......
  • International Sea-Bed Authority (international organization)
    international organization established in 1994 to regulate mining and related activities in the international seabed beyond national jurisdiction, an area that includes most of the world’s oceans. The ISA came into existence upon the entry into force of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which codified internati...
  • international seabed
    ...airspace of this area are open to use by all countries, except for those activities prohibited by international law (e.g., the testing of nuclear weapons). The bed of the high seas is known as the International Seabed Area (also known as “the Area”), for which the 1982 convention established a separate and detailed legal regime. In its original form this regime was unacceptable to...
  • International Seabed Area
    ...airspace of this area are open to use by all countries, except for those activities prohibited by international law (e.g., the testing of nuclear weapons). The bed of the high seas is known as the International Seabed Area (also known as “the Area”), for which the 1982 convention established a separate and detailed legal regime. In its original form this regime was unacceptable to...
  • International Seabed Authority (international organization)
    international organization established in 1994 to regulate mining and related activities in the international seabed beyond national jurisdiction, an area that includes most of the world’s oceans. The ISA came into existence upon the entry into force of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which codified internati...
  • International, Second (labour federation and political organization [1889])
    federation of socialist parties and trade unions that greatly influenced the ideology, policy, and methods of the European labour movement from the last decade of the 19th century to the beginning of World War I....
  • International Seismological Centre
    ...of origin and epicentres is for the period 1899–1903. In subsequent years, cataloging of earthquakes has become more uniform and complete. Especially valuable is the service provided by the International Seismological Centre (ISC) at Newbury, Eng. Each month it receives more than 1,000,000 readings from more than 2,000 stations worldwide and preliminary estimates of the locations of......
  • International Serials Data System
    ...should be agreed upon for assignment of a standard citation control element; serial numbers, including new assignments for a changed title, are provided through guidelines established by the International Serials Data System (ISDS). ISSN registrations are made available routinely by the U.S. Library of Congress, which includes the number on serial catalog cards and, when possible, in its......
  • International Settlements, Bank for
    international bank established at Basel, Switz., in 1930, as the agency to handle the payment of reparations by Germany after World War I and as an institution for cooperation among the central banks of the various countries (see Young Plan). It has since come to promote international monetary and financial stability and to serve as a centre for economic and monetary rese...
  • International Shooting Union
    Although there was a world championship in 1897, later world championships fell under the supervision of the international governing body, the International Shooting Union (ISU), formed in 1907 and reorganized in 1919 and 1946....
  • International Skating Union (ice skating organization)
    The International Skating Union (ISU), founded in Holland in 1892, was created to oversee skating internationally. It sanctions speed skating as well as figure skating and sponsors the world championships held annually since 1896. With more than 50 member nations, the ISU establishes rules about the conduct of skating and skating competitions....
  • International Ski Federation (sports organization)
    ...men and women compete on a circuit of tracks around the world, though mostly in Europe. The main governing body for speed skiing events is the Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS; International Ski Federation). As an advisory body to the International Olympic Committee (IOC), FIS has lobbied for the inclusion of speed skiing in the Olympic Winter Games. While the IOC wants to......
  • International Snowboarding Federation (international sports organization)
    Originally, snowboarding competitions were governed by the International Snowboarding Federation (ISF), which was formed in 1991 and began holding world championships in 1992. The FIS recognized snowboarding as a sport in 1994 and began holding its own world championships in snowboarding in 1996. Shortly afterward, the International Olympic Committee recognized the FIS as the official......
  • International Social Survey Program
    ...Similar comparative regional barometer surveys have been undertaken in eastern Europe, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean. The International Social Survey Program, better known as the ISSP Survey, is a collaborative effort involving research organizations in many parts of the world. Its survey topics include work, gender roles, religion, and national identity. The World Values......
  • International, Socialist (European history [1951])
    association of national socialist parties that advocates a democratic form of socialism....
  • International Society for Infectious Diseases (international organisation)
    ProMED-mail was established as a nonprofit project of the Federation of American Scientists in 1994. In 1999, ProMED-mail became a program of the International Society for Infectious Diseases. The network receives e-mail reports from subscribers that are analyzed by disease experts and sent out over the Internet. All of the ProMED-mail messages are archived and searchable....
  • International Society of Christian Endeavor
    interdenominational organization for Protestant youth in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It was founded in 1881 by Francis Edward Clark, who served as president until 1927. Members of the society pledged to try to make some useful contribution to the life of the church. Other churches soon organized Christian Endeavor societies, and the movement grew rapidly in the Unite...
  • International Society of Krishna Consciousness (religious sect)
    popular name of a semimonastic Vaishnava Hindu organization founded in the United States in 1965 by A.C. Bhaktivedanta (Swami Prabhupada; 1896–1977). This movement is a Western outgrowth of the popular Bengali bhakti (devotional) yoga tradition, or Krishna Consciousness, which began in the 16th century. Bhakti yoga...
  • International Sociological Association
    ...regional, international, and specialized sociological organizations. These groups institutionalized the subject and continue to guide its directions and define its boundaries. Eventually in 1949 the International Sociological Association was established under the sponsorship of UNESCO, and Louis Wirth of the University of Chicago was elected its first president....
  • International Softball Federation
    The Fédération Internationale de Softball (International Softball Federation), which was formed in 1952, acts as liaison between more than 40 softball organizations of several countries. Headquarters are in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The federation coordinates international competition and regular regional and world championship tournaments for men and women. In 1996, a women’s....
  • International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program
    ...(1964–69). In the 1980s NASA, ESA, and Japan’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Science undertook a cooperative venture to develop a comprehensive series of space missions, named the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, that would be aimed at full investigation of the Sun-Earth connection. This program was responsible for the U.S. Wind (1994) and Polar (1996)......
  • international space law
    the body of regulations in international law that governs conduct in and related to areas of space above Earth’s lower atmosphere....
  • International Space Station (space station)
    space station assembled in low Earth orbit largely by the United States and Russia, with assistance and components from a multinational consortium....
  • international squash rackets (sport)
    Two different varieties of game are played: softball (the so-called “British,” or “international,” version) and hardball (the “American” version). In softball, which is the standard game internationally, the game is played with a softer, slower ball on the kind of wide, tall court shown in the accompanying diagram. The ball stays in play far longer, and th...
  • International Standard Book Number
    in bibliography, 10-digit number assigned before publication to a book or edition thereof, which identifies the work’s national, geographic, language, or other convenient group, and its publisher, title, edition, and volume number. The ISBN is part of the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), which was prescribed by the International Organization for Standardization; dele...
  • International Standard Serial Number
    in bibliography, eight-digit number that provides a concise and unambiguous identification code for serial publications. Unlike the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), this number’s only significance is its unique identification of a particular publication; it does not record such characteristics as subject, language, or publisher. The ISSN is used by librarians, a...
  • International Standards Organization
    specialized international organization founded in Geneva in 1947 and concerned with standardization in all technical and nontechnical fields except electrical and electronic engineering (the responsibility of the International Electrotechnical Commission). Its membership extends to more than 100 countries, and each member is the national body “most representative of standardization in its c...
  • International Standards Organization Open Systems Interconnection (communications)
    Different communication requirements necessitate different network solutions, and these different network protocols can create significant problems of compatibility when networks are interconnected with one another. In order to overcome some of these interconnection problems, the open systems interconnection (OSI) was approved in 1983 as an international standard for communications architecture......
  • International Style (architecture)
    architectural style that developed in Europe and the United States in the 1920s and ’30s and became the dominant tendency in Western architecture during the middle decades of the 20th century. The most common characteristics of International Style buildings are rectilinear forms; light, taut plane surfaces that have been completely stripped of applied ornamentation and decoration; open int...
  • International Style (ice skating)
    Having won the U.S. men’s figure-skating championship, he went to Europe in 1865. Although his skating style (called International) was rejected in the United States and England, he became a great popular success in Sweden, Austria, and elsewhere on the Continent. In Vienna, the world’s “waltz capital” in the 19th century, he astutely offered instruction in waltzing on ...
  • International Sunshine Society (international social organization)
    The International Sunshine Society, incorporated in 1900, was headed by Alden for the rest of her life. In 1902 the society established a sanatorium in Bensonhurst for blind children (in 1917 it became Harbor Hospital), and in 1905 a nursery and a kindergarten for blind children were established in Brooklyn. In 1910 the Sunshine Arthur Home for blind babies was established in Summit, New......
  • international sunspot number (astronomy)
    ...the observations of the Earth’s magnetism made by Johann von Lamont. In 1849 he devised a system, still in use, of gauging solar activity by counting sunspots and sunspot groups, which are known as Wolf’s sunspot numbers....
  • International Surfing Association (sports organization)
    ...world surfing championships at Sydney. Surfers formed the International Surfing Federation during the 1964 contest and the federation assumed responsibility for organizing world championships. (The International Surfing Association [ISA] superseded the federation in 1976.) In 1982 the General Association of International Sports Federations recognized the ISA as the world’s governing body...
  • International System of Units (measurement)
    international decimal system of weights and measures derived from and extending the metric system of units. Adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960, it is abbreviated SI in all languages....
  • International Table Tennis Federation (international sports organization)
    ...England outside London and by the 1920s was being played in many countries. Led by representatives of Germany, Hungary, and England, the Fédération Internationale de Tennis de Table (International Table Tennis Federation) was founded in 1926, the founding members being England, Sweden, Hungary, India, Denmark, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Wales. By the mid-1990s more......
  • International Target Archery, Federation of (sports organization)
    ...held at York, and the Grand National Archery Society became the governing body of the sport in the United Kingdom. International rules were standardized in 1931 with the founding of the Fédération Internationale de Tir à l’Arc (FITA; Federation of International Target Archery) in Paris....
  • International Telecommunication Union (UN agency)
    specialized agency of the United Nations that was created to encourage international cooperation in all forms of telecommunication. Its activities include maintaining order in the allocation of radio frequencies, setting standards on technical and operational matters, and assisting countries in developing their own telecommunication systems....
  • International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (international organization)
    organization founded in 1964 by the telecommunication agencies of 18 nations, including the United States, which proposed the organization. Intelsat owns communications satellites and the ground stations from which they are controlled, but the transmitting and receiving apparatus in each country is owned by the Intelsat member from that country. Within several years the membership of Intelsat had ...
  • International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (international organization)
    organization founded in 1964 by the telecommunication agencies of 18 nations, including the United States, which proposed the organization. Intelsat owns communications satellites and the ground stations from which they are controlled, but the transmitting and receiving apparatus in each country is owned by the Intelsat member from that country. Within several years the membership of Intelsat had ...
  • International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (United Nations agency)
    ...carrying address information and certain other information signals between the microprocessors employed in telephone switches. The first version of CCS was developed between 1964 and 1968 by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), a predecessor of the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union. The first system was......
  • International Telegraph Union
    Because of worldwide interest in applications of the telegraph, the International Telegraph Union was formed in 1865 to establish standards for use in international communication. In the following year the first successful transatlantic cables were completed....
  • International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation (American company)
    , former American telecommunications company that grew into a successful conglomerate corporation before its breakup in 1995....
  • International Tennis Federation (international sports organization)
    ...awarded to a player or team whenever the opponent fails to correctly return the ball within the prescribed dimensions of the court. Organized tennis is played according to rules sanctioned by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the world governing body of the sport....
  • “International, The” (political anthem)
    former official socialist and communist song. It was the anthem of the First, Second, and Third Internationals and, from 1918 to 1944, the national anthem of the Soviet Union....
  • International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (nuclear physics facility)
    ...The presence of alpha particles can alter the behaviour of the plasma in ways not easily simulated in nonburning plasmas. It is anticipated that this will occur in a planned new experiment, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) to be constructed at Cadarache, France. This is a very large experiment that will investigate both the physics of an ignited plasma and reactor......
  • International, Third (association of political parties)
    association of national communist parties founded in 1919. Though its stated purpose was the promotion of world revolution, the Comintern functioned chiefly as an organ of Soviet control over the international communist movement....
  • International Time Bureau
    The observatory was enlarged in 1730, 1810, 1834, 1850, and 1951. The Paris building now houses the headquarters of the International Time Bureau, which standardizes the time determinations of the world’s observatories. In 1926 the solar observatory at Meudon, on the outskirts of Paris, was taken over by the Paris Observatory. A radio astronomy station is maintained at Nançay, about ...
  • International Towing Tank Conference
    ...The friction coefficient was the subject of intense research, especially during the first half of the 20th century, but since that time most ship designers have employed values standardized by the International Towing Tank Conference....
  • international trade
    economic transactions that are made between countries. Among the items commonly traded are consumer goods, such as television sets and clothing; capital goods, such as machinery; and raw materials and food. Other transactions involve services, such as travel services and payments for foreign patents (see service industry). International trade transactions are facilitated ...
  • International Trade and Industry, Ministry of (Japanese agency)
    After World War II, Japanese design benefited from an active reconnection to Europe and the United States. Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), formed in 1949, sent Japanese industrial designers for study abroad in an effort to upgrade the quality of the country’s products, which were considered, in the immediate postwar era, to be cheap imitations of Western ...
  • International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Convention on (UN)
    Another type of activity regulated by command-and-control legislation is environmentally harmful trade. Among the most-developed regulations are those on trade in wildlife. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES, 1973), for example, authorizes signatories to the convention to designate species “threatened with extinction which are or may be affected by......
  • International Triathlon Union (international sports organization)
    While triathlons were initially sponsored by local clubs, the more important races, including the Hawaiian Ironman, soon began to garner corporate sponsorships. In 1989 the International Triathlon Union (ITU), the sport’s official governing body, was founded in Avignon, France, with the mission to promote the sport’s global appeal. The ITU hosts an annual World Championship....
  • International Typographic Style (graphic design)
    After World War II, designers in Switzerland and Germany codified Modernist graphic design into a cohesive movement called Swiss Design, or the International Typographic Style. These designers sought a neutral and objective approach that emphasized rational planning and de-emphasized the subjective, or individual, expression. They constructed modular grids of horizontal and vertical lines and......
  • International Typographical Union (labour organization, United States-Canada)
    ...the National Typographical Union, was formed in 1852 in the United States. Like other national unions that followed, it chartered locals in Canada as well; this led to its renaming in 1869 as the International Typographical Union—a designation that became common in North American unionism....
  • International Ultraviolet Explorer (satellite)
    astronomical research satellite built in the 1970s as a cooperative project of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Science and Engineering Research Council of the United Kingdom, and the European Space Agency (ESA). Launched in January 1978, the IUE functioned until it was shut down on September 30, 1996, and was one of the most productive astronomical instruments in...
  • International Union for Conservation of Nature
    ...36 have become extinct in the past century, and another 618 species are threatened. (In the field of conservation, the term threatened has a specific, technical meaning. It comes from the World Conservation Union’s [IUCN’s] Red Lists, the lists of species that are at risk of extinction. A species listed as “threatened” has a high probability of extinction in t...
  • International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
    ...36 have become extinct in the past century, and another 618 species are threatened. (In the field of conservation, the term threatened has a specific, technical meaning. It comes from the World Conservation Union’s [IUCN’s] Red Lists, the lists of species that are at risk of extinction. A species listed as “threatened” has a high probability of extinction in t...
  • International Union of American Republics (Organization of American States)
    ...States (1889–90), which was held largely as the result of the efforts of U.S. Secretary of State James G. Blaine, established the International Union of American Republics (later called the Pan-American Union), with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. Subsequent conferences dealt with such matters of common concern as arbitration of financial and territorial claims, extradition of......
  • International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
    ...are capable of yielding a value of the equatorial radius of the Earth, but satellite measurements are greatly superior for determining the flattening. After 10 years of satellite observations, the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics adopted the Geodetic Reference System 1967, defining aequatorial,....
  • International Union of Geological Sciences
    During the last half of the 20th century, the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) defined the boundaries and subdivisions of the Devonian System using a series of Global Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs). The base of the Lochkovian Stage—that is, the Silurian-Devonian boundary—is in a section at Klonk, Czech Rep. A point at La Serre in southern France has been......
  • International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
    As with other types of organic compounds, alcohols are named by both formal and common systems. The most generally applicable system is that adopted at a meeting of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in Paris in 1957. Using the IUPAC system, the name for an alcohol uses the -ol suffix with the name of the parent alkane, together with a number to give the location of......
  • International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (North American industrial union)
    North American industrial union of automotive and other vehicular workers, headquartered in Detroit, Mich., and representing workers in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico....
  • International Unit (unit of measurement)
    in pharmacology, quantity of a substance, such as a vitamin, hormone, or toxin, that produces a specified effect when tested according to an internationally accepted biological procedure. For certain substances, the IU has been identified with a weight of a particular purified form of the material; for example, one gram of vitamin A acetate contains 2.904 × 106 IU. For internatio...
  • International Vegetarian Union (organization)
    ...ethically inclined individuals, special institutions grew up to express vegetarian concerns as such. The first vegetarian society was formed in England in 1847 by the Bible Christian sect, and the International Vegetarian Union was founded tentatively in 1889 and more enduringly in 1908....
  • International Venice Film Festival (Italian film festival)
    ...in 1932. Since World War II, film festivals have contributed significantly to the development of the motion-picture industry in many countries. The popularity of Italian films at the Cannes and Venice film festivals played an important part in the rebirth of the Italian industry and the spread of the postwar Neorealist movement. In 1951 Kurosawa Akira’s Rashomon ...
  • International Weightlifting Federation (sports organization)
    ...included weight-lifting events, as did the Games of 1900 and 1904, but thereafter these events were suspended until 1920. In that year, at the suggestion of the International Olympic Committee, the International Weightlifting Federation (Fédération Haltérophile Internationale; FHI) was formed to regularize events and supervise international competition. By 1928 the one- and...
  • International Whaling Commission
    an intergovernmental organization that regulates whaling, a competitive industry based on the hunting of a common global resource. The commission was created after World War II by the Allied Powers, who were eager to increase fat and meat supplies but noted previous failures to control the rapid escalation of whaling. In 1946 the Allies invited interested coun...
  • International Women’s Cricket Council (sports organization)
    ...Women’s Cricket Association was founded, and in 1934–35 it sent a team to Australia and New Zealand. Australia paid a return visit in 1937, and, since World War II, tours have increased. The International Women’s Cricket Council was formed in 1958 by Australia, England, The Netherlands, New Zealand, and South Africa and later included India, Denmark, and several West Indian...
  • International Women’s Day (holiday)
    day (March 8) honouring the achievements of women and promoting women’s rights. A national holiday in numerous countries, it has been sponsored by the United Nations (UN) since 1975....
  • International Workers’ Day (holiday)
    day commemorating the historic struggles and gains made by workers and the labour movement, observed in many countries on May 1. In the United States and Canada it is celebrated on the first Monday of September as Labor Day....
  • International Working Men’s Association (labour federation [1864])
    federation of workers’ groups that, despite ideological divisions within its ranks, had a considerable influence as a unifying force for labour in Europe during the latter part of the 19th century....
  • International Working Union of Socialist Parties
    ...1921 delegates from the “centre” and “left” Socialist parties that had refused to join either the Second or the Third International met in a congress at Vienna and formed the International Working Union of Socialist Parties, also known as the Vienna Union, with the object of preparing the ground for an all-embracing International. In 1922 delegates from the Second an...
  • International Yacht Racing Union
    ...in a number of countries throughout the world. The North American Racing Union was formed in 1925. A need for a body to set international racing rules and classes resulted in the founding of the International Yacht Racing Union (IYRU) in 1907....
  • International Young Men’s Christian Association Training School (school, Springfield, Massachusetts, United States)
    ...strictly of U.S. origin, basketball was invented by James Naismith (1861–1939) on or about December 1, 1891, at the International Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Training School (now Springfield College), Springfield, Massachusetts, where Naismith was an instructor in physical education....
  • International Youth Hostel Federation (organization in United Kingdom)
    Youth hostels were common in Germany in the early 1900s. After World War I they spread rapidly through Europe and other areas of the world. The International Youth Hostel Federation was formed in 1932 to coordinate activities of the various national youth hostel associations and to facilitate international travel by members; by 1980 its membership included national federations in 50 countries.......
  • international-system analysis (political science)
    Whereas foreign-policy analysis concentrates on the units of the international system, international-system analysis is concerned with the structure of the system, the interactions between its units, and the implications for peace and war, or cooperation and conflict, of the existence of different types of states. The term interactions suggests challenge and response, give and......
  • Internationale, L’  (political anthem)
    former official socialist and communist song. It was the anthem of the First, Second, and Third Internationals and, from 1918 to 1944, the national anthem of the Soviet Union....
Skip this Advertisement
The Britannica Store
A-Z Browse

Link to this article and share the full text with the readers of your Web site or blog post.

If you think a reference to this article on "" will enhance your Web site, blog post, or any other Web content, then feel free to link to it, and your readers will gain complete access to the full article, even if they do not subscribe to our service.

You may want to use the HTML code fragment provided below.

copy link

We welcome your comments. Any revisions or updates suggested for this article will be reviewed by our editorial staff. Contact us here.

This is a BETA release of TOPIC HISTORY
Type
Title
Description
Contributor
Date
Image preview