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First Principles (work by Spencer)
...a prospectus and accepted subscriptions for a comprehensive work, The Synthetic Philosophy, which was to include, besides the already published Principles of Psychology, volumes on first principles and on biology, sociology, and morality. First Principles was published in 1862, and between then and 1896, when the third volume of The Principles of Sociology......
First Programme for Economic Expansion (Irish history)
...national regeneration, had been published in 1958 under the name of T.K. Whitaker, an exceptional civil servant and then secretary of the Department of Finance. Lemass and Whitaker implemented the First Programme for Economic Expansion (1958–63), under which the principle of protection was abandoned and foreign investment encouraged, while a targeted growth rate of 2 percent resulted in....
First Provincial Normal School (school, Changsha, China)
Mao eventually graduated from the First Provincial Normal School in Changsha in 1918. While officially an institution of secondary level rather than of higher education, the normal school offered a high standard of instruction in Chinese history, literature, and philosophy as well as in Western ideas. While at the school, Mao also acquired his first experience in political activity by helping......
First Religious Society (American organization)
Ordained after graduating from Harvard Divinity School (1847), Higginson became pastor of the First Religious Society of Newburyport, Massachusetts, where he preached a social gospel too liberal even for Unitarians. Two years later his progressive views on temperance, women’s rights, labour, and slavery caused him to lose his congregation....
First Report on Public Credit (paper by Hamilton)
...Congress’s debts at par rather than at a depreciated value and that it assume state debts, drawing the interests of the creditors toward the central government rather than state governments. This plan met strong opposition from the many who had sold their securities at great discount during the postwar depression and from Southern states, which had repudiated their debts and did not want...
First Republic (Spanish history)
...Latin Europe. The conflict became especially intense after 1870. Barcelona, traditionally a centre of anti-Catholic feeling, witnessed the formation of powerful syndicalist and anarchist groups. The first Spanish Republic (1873) enacted some anticlerical laws, but these were repealed or disregarded when the monarchy was restored in 1875. During an anticlerical outbreak in 1909, mobs burned......
First Republic (Madagascan history)
The opposition regrouped under the name Congress Party for the Independence of Madagascar (Antokon’ny Kongresin’ny Fahaleovantenan’i Madagasikara; AKFM), which included both Protestant Merina dissidents and communists. Antananarivo was the party’s stronghold; it also had some support in the provinces but, owing to the electoral system established by the PSD, held only t...
First Republic (French history)
...of the Tuileries by the people of Paris and provincial militia on Aug. 10, 1792. It also led to the temporary suspension of the king’s powers by the Legislative Assembly and the proclamation of the First French Republic on September 21. In November, proof of Louis XVI’s secret dealings with Mirabeau and of his counterrevolutionary intrigues with the foreigners was found in a secre...
First Republic (Austrian history)
First Republic and the Anschluss...
First Republic (Burundian history)
...his son, who began what was to be an extremely short reign, as he himself was deposed by Tutsi politicians in November. With the formal overthrow of the monarchy and the formal proclamation of the First Republic (with Micombero as president), the last obstacle in the path of Tutsi domination was removed....
First Republic (South Korean history)
The First Republic, established in August 1948, adopted a presidential system, and Syngman Rhee was subsequently elected its first president. South Korea also adopted a National Security Law, which effectively prohibited groups that opposed the state or expressions of support for North Korea. Rhee was reelected in August 1952 while the country was at war. Even before the outbreak of the Korean......
First Rescue Party, The (work by Capek)
...to Czechoslovakia’s independent existence in the mid-1930s prompted Čapek to write several works intended to warn and mobilize his countrymen. The realistic novel Prvni parta (1937; The First Rescue Party) stressed the need for solidarity. In his last plays the appeal became more direct. Bílá nemoc (1937; Power and Glory) presented the tra...
“First Rule” (work by Francis of Assisi)
...had little more than Francis’s example and his brief rule of life to guide its increasing numbers. To correct this situation, Francis prepared a new and more detailed rule (Regula prima, “First Rule,” or Regula non bullata, “Rule Without a Bull”), which reasserted devotion to poverty a...
first salmon ceremony (religion)
...would refuse to return to the river. Hence, there were numerous specific prohibitions on acts believed to offend them and a number of observances designed to propitiate them, chief of which was the first-salmon ceremony. This rite varied in detail but invariably involved honouring the first salmon of the main fishing season by sprinkling them with eagle down, red ochre, or some other sacred......
First Satire Of the Second Book Of Horace, Imitated (work by Pope)
The success of his First Satire of the Second Book of Horace, Imitated (1733) led to the publication (1734–38) of 10 more of these paraphrases of Horatian themes adapted to the contemporary social and political scene. Pope’s poems followed Horace’s satires and epistles sufficiently closely for him to print the Latin on facing pages with the English, bu...
First Seminole War (United States history [1817-18])
The First Seminole War (1817–18) began over attempts by U.S. authorities to recapture runaway black slaves living among Seminole bands. Under General Andrew Jackson, U.S. military forces invaded the area, scattering the villagers, burning their towns, and seizing Spanish-held Pensacola and St. Marks. As a result, in 1819 Spain was induced to cede its Florida territory under the terms of......
First Solvay Congress in Physics (Brussels, Belgium [1911])
...be deduced from the other two laws. As a result, Nernst became one of the earliest wholehearted supporters of Einstein and quantum mechanics. In particular, Nernst was instrumental in organizing the First Solvay Congress in Physics, held in Brussels in November 1911, which was devoted to a thorough evaluation of the new quantum hypothesis by a group of leading European physicists....
first sound shift (linguistics)
description of the regular correspondences in Indo-European languages formulated by Jacob Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik (1819–37; “Germanic Grammar”); it pointed out prominent correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages of Europe and western Asia. The law was a systematic and coherent formulation, well supported by examples,...
First Spanish Republic (Spanish history)
...Latin Europe. The conflict became especially intense after 1870. Barcelona, traditionally a centre of anti-Catholic feeling, witnessed the formation of powerful syndicalist and anarchist groups. The first Spanish Republic (1873) enacted some anticlerical laws, but these were repealed or disregarded when the monarchy was restored in 1875. During an anticlerical outbreak in 1909, mobs burned......
First Studio (Russian theatre)
...an exceptional talent for satirical characterization. Commanding respect from followers and adversaries alike, he became a dominant influence on the Russian intellectuals of the time. He formed the First Studio in 1912, where his innovations were adopted by many young actors. In 1918 he undertook the guidance of the Bolshoi Opera Studio, which was later named for him. There he staged Pyotr......
First style (Roman art)
At Pompeii during the 2nd century bc the interior walls of private houses were decorated in a so-called Incrustation, or First, style; that is, the imitation in painted stucco of veneers, or crustae (“slabs”), of coloured marbles. But in the second half of the 1st century bc, there suddenly appeared in Rome and in the Campanian cities (the most famo...
First Symphony (work by Scriabin)
...Moscow Conservatory. He then devoted himself entirely to composition and in 1904 settled in Switzerland. After 1900 he was much preoccupied with mystical philosophy, and his Symphony No. 1, composed in that year, has a choral finale, to his own words, glorifying art as a form of religion. In Switzerland he completed his Symphony No.......
First Symphony (work by Glazunov)
...a piano pupil of Mily Balakirev, took her obviously talented son to her teacher, and on his advice the boy in 1880 began study with Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov. In 1882 Balakirev conducted Glazunov’s First Symphony. A revised version of the piece was printed in 1886 by M.P. Belyayev, a millionaire timber merchant and founder of the famous Belyayev music-publishing firm that Glazunov l...
First Taranaki War (Maori-New Zealand history [1860-61])
...Many Maori were determined not to sell. In 1859 Te Teira, a Maori of the Taranaki area, sold his Waitara River land to the colonial government without the consent of his tribe, precipitating the First Taranaki War (1860–61). Only the extremist wing of the King Movement joined in the First Taranaki War....
First Temple (Judaism)
either of two temples that were the centre of worship and national identity in ancient Israel....
First Treaty of Partition (European history)
...of the Spanish Habsburgs. In an effort to regulate the impending succession, to which there were three principal claimants, England, the Dutch Republic, and France had in October 1698 signed the First Treaty of Partition, agreeing that on the death of Charles II, Prince Joseph Ferdinand, son of the Elector of Bavaria, should inherit Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies.......
First Treaty of Versailles (1756)
...to discuss with the Austrian ambassador in Paris Austria’s proposals for a French alliance (August 1755). Strongly supported by Louis XV himself, these negotiations resulted in the first (defensive) treaty of Versailles between France and Austria (May 1, 1756) and then to the second (offensive) treaty of Versailles (May 1, 1757). This alliance with France’s old enemy and the aband...
First United States Army Group (United States military)
In August, after the invasion, the U.S. forces in northern France were reorganized into the Twelfth Army Group under Bradley, and Hodges succeeded to command of the First Army. The First Army helped to liberate Paris, swept through Luxembourg and southern Belgium, was the first to breach the Siegfried Line (Germany’s fortified western frontier), and captured the German city of Aachen. Hodge...
First Violations of International Law by Germany, The (work by Renault)
In 1879 Renault published his Introduction to the Study of International Law and in 1917 First Violations of International Law by Germany, concerning the invasion of Belgium and Luxembourg in breach of Germany’s treaty obligations....
First World War (1914-18)
an international conflict that in 1914–18 embroiled most of the nations of Europe along with Russia, the United States, the Middle East, and other regions. The war pitted the Central Powers—mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey...
First Writing Book, The (manual by Benson)
...articles on this topic for the rest of his life. In 1954, more than 400 years after its first appearance, Arrighi’s La operina was translated by John Howard Benson as The First Writing Book. Benson wrote out his translation using both the layout and the writing style of the original; he included a facsimile of Arrighi’s work as well as notes o...
first-aid treatment (medicine)
...Prussian army against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870), when he held the rank of surgeon general. Esmarch wrote a handbook of military surgical technique and instituted training in first aid for civilian and military personnel. His manuals on first aid were the best in their field and were widely used. A patent of nobility was conferred upon him in 1887 by the German emperor....
first-class mail
...accounts in 1947. A decline to less than 1,000,000 depositors caused the service to be discontinued in 1966. Mail was formally divided into three classes in 1863, and a fourth was added in 1879. First-class, or letter, mail (called letter post in the United Kingdom) is the basis of the postal service monopoly and, as the class of mail most commonly used by the public, has generally had a......
first-degree burn (injury)
Physicians have traditionally categorized burns as first-, second-, or third-degree injuries, according to the depth of skin damage (see illustration). In a first-degree burn, only the epidermis is affected. These injuries are characterized by redness and pain; there are no blisters, and edema (swelling due to the accumulation of fluids) in the wounded tissue is minimal. A classic......
first-fruits ceremony (religion)
ceremony centered on the concept that the first fruits of a harvest belong to or are sanctified unto God (or gods)....
first-generation computer
...execute up to 5,000 additions per second, several orders of magnitude faster than its electromechanical predecessors. Colossus, ENAIC, and subsequent computers employing vacuum tubes are known as first-generation computers. (With 1,500 mechanical relays, ENIAC was still transitional to later, fully electronic computers.)...
first-generation language (computing)
the numeric codes for the operations that a particular computer can execute directly. The codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”), which are frequently converted both from and to hexadecimal (base 16) for human viewing and modification. Machine language instructions typically use some bits to represent operations, such as additi...
first-in first-out buffer (sound recording)
...in binary form, and a series of points are impressed on the compact disc. Playback is essentially the reverse of recording. Each point on the wave is read in and stored in a computer memory called a first-in first-out buffer. Using an internal 44.1-kilohertz clock, each point is converted in order into analog form and then input into a standard power amplifier and loudspeaker. The time scale fo...
first-order language (logic)
...the interpretations (models) of theories formalized in the framework of formal logic, especially in that of the first-order predicate calculus with identity—i.e., in elementary logic. A first-order language is given by a collection S of symbols for relations, functions, and constants, which, in combination with the symbols of elementary logic, single out certain combinations......
first-order logic
A predicate calculus in which the only variables that occur in quantifiers are individual variables is known as a lower (or first-order) predicate calculus. Various lower predicate calculi have been constructed. In the most straightforward of these, to which the most attention will be devoted in this discussion and which subsequently will be referred to simply as LPC, the wffs can be specified......
first-order logic with identity (logic)
3.LPC-with-identity. The word “is” is not always used in the same way. In a proposition such as (1) “Socrates is snub-nosed,” the expression preceding the “is” names an individual and the expression following it stands for a property attributed to that individual. But, in a proposition such as (2) “Socrates is the Athenian philosopher who drank......
first-order predicate calculus
A predicate calculus in which the only variables that occur in quantifiers are individual variables is known as a lower (or first-order) predicate calculus. Various lower predicate calculi have been constructed. In the most straightforward of these, to which the most attention will be devoted in this discussion and which subsequently will be referred to simply as LPC, the wffs can be specified......
first-order theory (logic)
A first-order theory is determined by a language and a set of selected sentences of the language—those sentences of the theory that are, in an arbitrary, generalized sense, the “true” ones (called the “distinguished elements” of the set). In the particular case of the system N, one theory Ta is built up on the basis of the language and the set o...
first-pass effect (physiology)
...in the gastrointestinal tract must pass through the liver, where they can be biotransformed and thus eliminated before being distributed to other parts of the body. This phenomenon is known as the first-pass effect. As a result, smaller amounts of certain chemicals are distributed throughout the body after oral administration than after other exposure routes, such as intravenous or......
first-person shooter game (electronic game genre)
...power enabled the development of games played from a first-person perspective. Although Wolfenstein 3-D (1992), produced by id Software for PCs, was not the original first-person shooter (FPS) game, it set the standard for the subgenre. id Software followed up with Doom (1993), the first FPS game with multiplayer support. Other popular......
first-strike capability
...instead, it was just as likely that they would be used in counterforce strikes against military targets. A successful counterforce attack that rendered retaliation impossible—known as a “first strike”—would be strategically decisive. If, however, the attacked nation possessed sufficient forces to survive an attempted first strike with retaliatory weapons intact,......
Firstamerica Corporation (American bank holding company)
once one of the largest American multibank holding corporations. The corporation was formed in 1957 as Firstamerica Corporation and started operations in 1958 when it acquired all of the directly held shares of Transamerica Corporation’s stock in banks in which Transamerica held a majority share of stock. The name ...
Firstborn (poetry by Glück)
...New York, and Columbia University in New York City, Glück taught poetry at numerous colleges and universities, including Harvard and Yale. Her first collection of poetry, Firstborn (1968), uses a variety of first-person personae, all disaffected or angry. The collection’s tone disturbed many critics, but Glück’s exquisitely controlled languag...
firstborn (kinship)
...or for similar reasons. In many advanced societies, children have been killed in the belief that it would ensure health, good fortune, and general fertility. Religious offerings, especially of the firstborn, are known from the Bible, as well as from the histories of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Firstborn sacrifice was once common among many peoples in India; here the motive was the offering of......
FirstCity (American company)
American financial-services company founded in 1950 as the bank holding company First City Bancorporation of Texas, Inc. Headquarters are in Waco, Texas....
FirstCity Financial Corporation (American company)
American financial-services company founded in 1950 as the bank holding company First City Bancorporation of Texas, Inc. Headquarters are in Waco, Texas....
Firth, Colin (British actor)
British actor especially known for his portrayals of aloof characters who gradually shed their reserve to become emotionally available, notably Mr. Darcy in a television adaptation of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1995)....
Firth, Colin Andrew (British actor)
British actor especially known for his portrayals of aloof characters who gradually shed their reserve to become emotionally available, notably Mr. Darcy in a television adaptation of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1995)....
Firth, John R. (British linguist)
British linguist specializing in contextual theories of meaning and prosodic analysis. He was the originator of the “London school of linguistics.”...
Firth, John Rupert (British linguist)
British linguist specializing in contextual theories of meaning and prosodic analysis. He was the originator of the “London school of linguistics.”...
Firth of Forth Bridge (railway bridge, Scotland, United Kingdom)
railway bridge over the Firth of Forth, the estuary of the River Forth in Scotland. It was one of the first cantilever bridges and for several years was the world’s longest span. Designed and built by Benjamin Baker in the late 1880s, its opening stirred controversy on aesthetic grounds, the poet an...
Firth, Sir Charles Harding (British historian)
English historian noted for his work on 17th-century English history....
Firth, Sir Raymond (New Zealand anthropologist)
New Zealand social anthropologist best known for his research on the Maori and other peoples of Oceania and Southeast Asia....
Firth, Sir Raymond William (New Zealand anthropologist)
New Zealand social anthropologist best known for his research on the Maori and other peoples of Oceania and Southeast Asia....
Firuz (Khivan khan)
...(“Amulet of the Lovers”), and continued the writing of Paradise of Felicity. Āgahī also was a major translator of the Persian classics into Chagatai. The khan Sayyid Muḥammad Raḥīm Bahādur II introduced printing to Khiva in 1874, the year of Āgahī’s death. Taking the pen name Firuz, he also wrote verse in ...
Fīrūz (king of Persia)
...in repelling an invasion by the Hephthalites. In the following decades, however (the second half of the 5th century), Hephthalite attacks continued to harass and weaken the Sāsānians. Fīrūz (reigned 457–484) fell in battle against them; his treasures and family were captured, and the country was devastated. His brother Balāsh (484–488), unable to...
Fīrūz Khān (Sūr ruler)
...Islam Shah (ruled 1545–53). Islam Shah, preeminently a soldier, was less successful as a ruler than his father. Palace intrigues and insurrections marred his reign. On his death his young son, Fīrūz, came to the Sūr throne but was murdered by his own maternal uncle, and subsequently the empire fractured into several parts....
Fīrūz Shah Bahmanī (Bahmanī ruler)
...disputes caused both by party conflicts and by dynastic rivalries. When Muḥammad’s cousins Aḥmad and Fīrūz finally gained control, Fīrūz succeeded as Fīrūz Shah Bahmanī. His reign (1397–1422) was a period of notable cultural activity in the Bahmanī sultanate, as well as one of continued development of the trend ...
Fīrūz Shah Tughluq (Tughluq sultan)
...to be ascribed to his reign is the magnificent tomb of Shāh Rukn-e ʿĀlam at Multān in Pakistan, which is built of brick and faced with exquisite tile work. The Koṭla Fīrūz Shāh (1354–70), with its mosques, palaces, and tombs, is now in ruins but represents the major building activity of Fīrūz Shāh, who took a gr...
Fīrūzābād (Iran)
town situated about 55 miles (88 km) south of Shīrāz, in the Fars region of south-central Iran. The town is said to have been founded by the Sāsānian king Ardashīr I (ad 224–241) in commemoration of his victory over the Parthian king Artabanus. The Sāsānian town was circular in plan and had ...
Fīrūzābād (India)
city and national capital territory, north-central India. The city of Delhi actually consists of two components: Old Delhi, in the north, the historic city; and New Delhi, in the south, since 1947 the capital of India, built in the first part of the 20th century as the capital of British India. One of the country’s largest urban agglomerations, Delhi sits astride (but pri...
Fīrūzābādī, al- (Iranian lexicographer)
lexicographer who compiled an extensive dictionary of Arabic that, in its digest form, Al-Qāmūs (“The Ocean”), served as the basis of later European dictionaries of Arabic....
Fīrūzan (Iranian general)
At Nahāvand some 30,000 Arab troops, under the command of Nuʿmān, attacked a Sāsānian army alleged to number 150,000 men. The Sāsānian troops, commanded by Fīrūzan, were entrenched in a strong fortified position. After an indecisive skirmish, Nuʿmān pretended to be defeated and withdrew from the battlefield. Fīr...
firz (chess)
Each player has one queen, which combines the powers of the rook and bishop and is thus the most mobile and powerful piece. The White queen begins at d1, the Black queen at d8....
FIS (political party, Algeria)
Algerian Islamist political party. Known best by its French acronym, the organization was founded in 1989 by Ali Belhadj and Abbasi al-Madani. The party won a majority of the seats contested in local elections in 1990 and most of the seats in the National Assembly in the first round of b...
FIS (sports organization)
...men and women compete on a circuit of tracks around the world, though mostly in Europe. The main governing body for speed skiing events is the Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS; International Ski Federation). As an advisory body to the International Olympic Committee (IOC), FIS has lobbied for the inclusion of speed skiing in the Olympic Winter Games. While the IOC wants to......
“Fís Adamnáín” (Gaelic literature)
in the Gaelic literature of Ireland, one of the earliest and most outstanding medieval Irish visions. This graceful prose work dates from the 10th century and is preserved in the later The Book of the Dun Cow (c. 1100). Patterned after pagan voy...
FISA (sports organization)
Local and national organizations, amateur and professional, were formed in this period, and in 1892 the Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d’Aviron (FISA; the International Rowing Federation) was founded. Events in rowing (for crews of eight, four, and two) and in sculling were established. In races for eights and for some fours and pairs, there is also a......
“Fisadamnain” (Gaelic literature)
in the Gaelic literature of Ireland, one of the earliest and most outstanding medieval Irish visions. This graceful prose work dates from the 10th century and is preserved in the later The Book of the Dun Cow (c. 1100). Patterned after pagan voy...
FISB (sports organization)
...course, usually from 3 to 5 km (2 to 3 miles). International events, such as the European and world championships, held since 1963 and 1967, respectively, are organized under the jurisdiction of the Fédération Internationale de Skibob (FISB), founded in 1961 and headquartered in Vienna....
fiscal policy (economics)
measures employed by governments to stabilize the economy, specifically by manipulating the levels and allocations of taxes and government expenditures. Fiscal measures are frequently used in tandem with monetary policy to achieve certain goals....
Fischart, Johann (German satirist)
German satirist, the principal German literary opponent of the Counter-Reformation....
Fischer, Annie (Hungarian pianist)
Hungarian pianist who gained international renown in the 20th century....
Fischer, Bobby (American-Icelandic chess player)
American-born chess master who became the youngest grandmaster in history when he received the title in 1958. His youthful intemperance and brilliant playing drew the attention of the American public to the game of chess, particularly when he won the world championship in 1972....
Fischer carbene (chemical compound)
This type of carbene complex is common for the atoms of metals in groups 6–8, and they are called Fischer carbenes. The Fischer carbenes can be modified by electron-rich groups. For example, the attack of an amine on the electron-poor carbon atom of a Fischer carbene results in the displacement of the OR group to yield a new carbene (Me represents the methyl group,......
Fischer, Carl (photographer)
...were engagingly simple and direct. Lois went on to design over 90 covers for Esquire magazine in the 1960s. He used powerful photographs and photomontages, usually by Carl Fischer, to make succinct editorial statements about the United States. These designs acted as independent visual/verbal statements about such topics as assassinations and civil rights....
Fischer chess (game)
...earned her the (men’s) International Grandmaster (GM) title. In 2005 she won the FIDE Women’s Russian Chess Championship, held in Samara, Russia. In 2006 Kosteniuk became the first woman champion of chess960 (also known as Fischer chess because it was invented by the American Bobby Fischer, former world chess champion), a game in which the chess pieces are shuffled along each play...
Fischer clock (chess clock)
Quick chess took a new turn in the 1990s with a variation on Staunton’s single-move principle and Lasa’s time-budget idea. Fischer, who had not played a public game since winning the world championship in 1972, patented a chess clock in 1988 that added an increment of time after a player completed a move and hit the button on top. For example, in a speed game, a player could begin wi...
Fischer, Edmond H. (American biochemist)
American biochemist who was the corecipient with Edwin G. Krebs of the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning reversible phosphorylation, a biochemical mechanism that governs the activities of cell proteins....
Fischer, Emil (German chemist)
German chemist who was awarded the 1902 Nobel Prize for Chemistry in recognition of his investigations of the sugar and purine groups of substances....
Fischer, Emil Hermann (German chemist)
German chemist who was awarded the 1902 Nobel Prize for Chemistry in recognition of his investigations of the sugar and purine groups of substances....
Fischer, Erling Gunnar (Swedish cinematographer)
Nov. 18, 1910Ljungby, Swed.June 11, 2011Stockholm, Swed.Swedish cinematographer who showcased his stark expressionistic style in 12 of filmmaker Ingmar Bergman’s masterful black-and-white films, most notably Det sjunde inseglet (1957; The Seventh Seal...
Fischer, Ernst Otto (German chemist)
German theoretical chemist and educator who received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1973 for his identification of a completely new way in which metals and organic substances can combine. He shared the prize with Geoffrey Wilkinson of Great Britain....
Fischer, Fritz (German historian)
German historian and professor (1948–73; emeritus, 1973–99) of medieval and modern history at the University of Hamburg who rejected the prevailing consensus of shared blame and postulated, most notably in his scholarly book Griff nach der Weltmacht: Die Kriegszielpolitik des kaiserlichen Deutschland 1914/18 (1961; Germany’s Aims in the ...
Fischer, Gunnar (Swedish cinematographer)
Nov. 18, 1910Ljungby, Swed.June 11, 2011Stockholm, Swed.Swedish cinematographer who showcased his stark expressionistic style in 12 of filmmaker Ingmar Bergman’s masterful black-and-white films, most notably Det sjunde inseglet (1957; The Seventh Seal...
Fischer, Gustav (German explorer)
During the 1880s Europeans explored the lakes of the Eastern Rift. Lakes Magadi and Naivasha were visited by a German traveler, Gustav Fischer, in 1883, and in that same year the Scottish explorer Joseph Thomson reached the shores of Lake Baringo. Five years later Count Sámuel Teleki and Ludwig von Höhnel reached Lake Rudolf. Considerable scientific study of the lakes region has......
Fischer, Hans (German biochemist)
German biochemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1930 for research into the constitution of hemin, the red blood pigment, and chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants....
Fischer, Jan (prime minister of Czech Republic)
Area: 78,865 sq km (30,450 sq mi) | Population (2010 est.): 10,526,000 | Capital: Prague | Head of state: President Vaclav Klaus | Head of government: Prime Ministers Jan Fischer and, from July 13, Petr Necas | ...
Fischer, Johann Ignaz Ludwig (German opera singer)
German operatic bass, famed for his vocal range of two and a half octaves....
Fischer, Johann Michael (German architect)
German architect, one of the most creative and prolific designers of late Baroque and Rococo churches in southern Germany....
Fischer, Joschka (German politician)
German political activist and politician who in the 1990s led the Green Party of Germany (Die Grünen) into the government. He served as foreign minister and vice-chancellor (1998–2005) of Germany....
Fischer, Joseph Martin (German politician)
German political activist and politician who in the 1990s led the Green Party of Germany (Die Grünen) into the government. He served as foreign minister and vice-chancellor (1998–2005) of Germany....
Fischer, Kuno (German philosopher)
German philosopher and educator who founded neo-Kantian thought with his System der Logik und Metaphysik (1852; “A System of Logic and Metaphysics”)....
Fischer, Ludwig (German opera singer)
German operatic bass, famed for his vocal range of two and a half octaves....
Fischer, O. W. (German actor)
German film actor (b. April 1, 1915, Klosterneuburg, Austria-Hungary [now in Austria]—d. Feb. 1, 2004, Lugano, Switz.), played the lead in dozens of light romantic comedies and historical pieces, becoming one of the highest-paid actors in German-language film in the 1950s; his popularity was at its highest from the early 1940s to the mid-1960s....