Uri, vinciri, verberari ferroque necaru, et quicquid aliud ... iussisset.
To be burned, bound, beaten, and put to death by the sword, and to do whatever else might [be] order[ed to] us.
- Gladiatorial Oath
- Petronius. Satyricon. 117.
To be burned, bound, beaten, and put to death by the sword, and to do whatever else might [be] order[ed to] us.
- Gladiatorial Oath
- Petronius. Satyricon. 117.
Gladiatorial Combats
A Brief Overview
The origin of gladiatorial combats was not said to have been Roman. Roman sources have attributed the start of the games to either Campania (Livy. 9.40 and Silius Italicus. Punica. 11.51) or to the Etruscans (Nicolaus of Damascus. Athletics. 4.153). The evidence from Etruscan tombs indicates there was a practice of holding funeral games on behalf of the privileged dead. In Campania, the elites were said to have held these combats at banquets (although these sources are writing at a much later time and have their own biases). In Roman times, these games were originally small private combats held as part of a funerary tradition (munera). These fights were sponsored by the elite as a means of mourning those among their ranks who had died and they increasingly became a way to gain public acclaim and political clout (particularly after the time of Julius Caesar). During the Republican period and throughout the Empire, the level and elaborateness of the games escalated as elite individuals strove for public recognition, both to establish and maintain their power base (in the Empire, the emperor would be the benefactor of the imperial games). Some examples of the escalation of events are as follows:
The gladiators who fought in the arena were generally captured soldiers (prisoners of war), slaves purchased and trained from a young age, or condemned criminals. It was also possible to become a gladiator by volunteering. If this was the case, the term was 3-5 years and in volunteering, they were agreeing to give up all of their citizen rights for life. They would be considered of no status as with prostitutes, mimes, and actors (Ulpian. Digest. 3.1.1.6).
Status of Gladiators
When one considers gladiators in modern times a sense of glory and victory may be associated with this. While it is true that some gladiators were highly successful, attaining fame and glory in society, their status was nevertheless diminished by their profession. All individuals who use their bodies for the entertainment of others were considered to be infames in Roman society. They were the lowest part of the Roman hierarchy and were considered to be on par with actors and prostitutes who also used their bodies in their work. Despite this fact there were some (including certain Emperors, i.e. Commodus) who did not fear such status and instead entered the arena voluntarily.
Emperors and Gladiators
There is a strong connection between the emperors of Rome and ludi in general due to the political aspect of holding these games publicly. While all emperors held games for the public, in order to gain the favor of the populace and to bolster their position, certain emperors showed a bit too much enjoyment for these types of spectacles. For example, the Emperor Claudius (reigned AD 41-54) was said to have enjoyed the games for more than was socially acceptable. He would stay at the games all day long and appeared to enjoy the public executions. Moreover, he is said to have been swift to order the death of gladiators who had fought and even worse, he enjoyed killing the retiarii as they wore no helmet and their faces were therefore visible whilst dying (Suetonius. Life of Claudius. 8.4 and 34.1). While the games were a means of entertainment, the status of gladiators was on par with prostitutes in ancient Rome and therefore few elites would deign to actively participate in such an event. During the reign of Nero (AD 54-68) elites were 'allowed' to fight as bestiarii and gladiators (although it is uncertain how voluntary this would have been). Moreover, there was one emperor who did not adhere to social conventions at all and who demonstrated a fanaticism for gladiators. The Emperor Commodus (reigned AD 180-192) is said to have been born from a mother who had an affair with a gladiator. She bathed in the blood of a gladiator to rid herself of her obsession as she was told to by her husband Marcus Aurelius. This story though sensational hardly seems to be based in fact, but is representative of the strong passion Commodus had for these combatants. He is said to have dressed himself as Hercules and Mercury (who carries off the deceased gladiators) and he himself fought in the arena (Cassius Dio. Roman History. 17).
Female Gladiators
Contrary to popular belief, males were not the only ones to fight in the arena. There are both literary and material records of female gladiators fighting as well. Although these were certainly not as common as their male counterparts they were an important part of the games and offered a somewhat novel aspect to the games in which they took place. Our main literary evidence of these female combatants stems from the legislation surviving which reference attempts to limit and/or abolish this type of fighting.
Photograph (center): Zliten mosaic, detail of border panels. Villa of Dar Buc Ammera.
The origin of gladiatorial combats was not said to have been Roman. Roman sources have attributed the start of the games to either Campania (Livy. 9.40 and Silius Italicus. Punica. 11.51) or to the Etruscans (Nicolaus of Damascus. Athletics. 4.153). The evidence from Etruscan tombs indicates there was a practice of holding funeral games on behalf of the privileged dead. In Campania, the elites were said to have held these combats at banquets (although these sources are writing at a much later time and have their own biases). In Roman times, these games were originally small private combats held as part of a funerary tradition (munera). These fights were sponsored by the elite as a means of mourning those among their ranks who had died and they increasingly became a way to gain public acclaim and political clout (particularly after the time of Julius Caesar). During the Republican period and throughout the Empire, the level and elaborateness of the games escalated as elite individuals strove for public recognition, both to establish and maintain their power base (in the Empire, the emperor would be the benefactor of the imperial games). Some examples of the escalation of events are as follows:
- 24 BC - munera for D. Junius Brutus at the Forum Boarium involving 3 pairs of men
- 65 BC - 320 pairs of gladiators fought in the games of Julius Caesar held in honor of his father
- The emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BC - AD 14) had 1, 000 pairs of gladiators fight over his entire reign
- Trajan (reigned AD 98-117) had 10,000 gladiators in only one set of games
The gladiators who fought in the arena were generally captured soldiers (prisoners of war), slaves purchased and trained from a young age, or condemned criminals. It was also possible to become a gladiator by volunteering. If this was the case, the term was 3-5 years and in volunteering, they were agreeing to give up all of their citizen rights for life. They would be considered of no status as with prostitutes, mimes, and actors (Ulpian. Digest. 3.1.1.6).
Status of Gladiators
When one considers gladiators in modern times a sense of glory and victory may be associated with this. While it is true that some gladiators were highly successful, attaining fame and glory in society, their status was nevertheless diminished by their profession. All individuals who use their bodies for the entertainment of others were considered to be infames in Roman society. They were the lowest part of the Roman hierarchy and were considered to be on par with actors and prostitutes who also used their bodies in their work. Despite this fact there were some (including certain Emperors, i.e. Commodus) who did not fear such status and instead entered the arena voluntarily.
Emperors and Gladiators
There is a strong connection between the emperors of Rome and ludi in general due to the political aspect of holding these games publicly. While all emperors held games for the public, in order to gain the favor of the populace and to bolster their position, certain emperors showed a bit too much enjoyment for these types of spectacles. For example, the Emperor Claudius (reigned AD 41-54) was said to have enjoyed the games for more than was socially acceptable. He would stay at the games all day long and appeared to enjoy the public executions. Moreover, he is said to have been swift to order the death of gladiators who had fought and even worse, he enjoyed killing the retiarii as they wore no helmet and their faces were therefore visible whilst dying (Suetonius. Life of Claudius. 8.4 and 34.1). While the games were a means of entertainment, the status of gladiators was on par with prostitutes in ancient Rome and therefore few elites would deign to actively participate in such an event. During the reign of Nero (AD 54-68) elites were 'allowed' to fight as bestiarii and gladiators (although it is uncertain how voluntary this would have been). Moreover, there was one emperor who did not adhere to social conventions at all and who demonstrated a fanaticism for gladiators. The Emperor Commodus (reigned AD 180-192) is said to have been born from a mother who had an affair with a gladiator. She bathed in the blood of a gladiator to rid herself of her obsession as she was told to by her husband Marcus Aurelius. This story though sensational hardly seems to be based in fact, but is representative of the strong passion Commodus had for these combatants. He is said to have dressed himself as Hercules and Mercury (who carries off the deceased gladiators) and he himself fought in the arena (Cassius Dio. Roman History. 17).
Female Gladiators
Contrary to popular belief, males were not the only ones to fight in the arena. There are both literary and material records of female gladiators fighting as well. Although these were certainly not as common as their male counterparts they were an important part of the games and offered a somewhat novel aspect to the games in which they took place. Our main literary evidence of these female combatants stems from the legislation surviving which reference attempts to limit and/or abolish this type of fighting.
- 22 BC Augustus created a law on elites in the arena which stopped them from becoming professional gladiators, actors, etc. There is no clear stipulation here about female gladiators, but they would likely have been included in this decree.
- AD 11 Legislation stating that freeborn women under 20 cannot appear in the arena was created. This makes reference to an earlier law which we do not have surviving, but which is referenced in the law of AD 19.
- AD 19 Senatus consultum from Larinum states that elite women cannot appear on the stage or become gladiators.
- AD 200 Septimius Severus produces a decree on female gladiators, banning them altogether.
Photograph (center): Zliten mosaic, detail of border panels. Villa of Dar Buc Ammera.
Gladiator Training
Before entering the arena, gladiators, venatores, and bestiarii would receive proper training at a ludus (school) in which they would learn proper fighting skills before entering the arena. In Rome there were 4 main imperial schools for this type of training:
Ludus Magnus: one of the 4 imperial gladiatorial schools. Built by Domition (AD 81-96)
Ludus Gallicus: one of the 4 imperial gladiatorial schools. Built by Domitian (AD 81-96)
Ludus Dacius: construction started under Domitian and completed under Trajan
Ludus Matutinus: only trained venatores and bestiarii (those who fought with animals)
Terms:
tiro - beginner gladiator
magistri - formerly trained gladiators who had fought in the arena
lanista - oversaw the training process
doctores - specialists in the different style of combat
rudis - wooden sword used by gladiators in training
Photograph (center): Lanista and Thracian mosaic detail, Verona Museum. Photo courtesy of Barbara McManus and VRoma.
Ludus Magnus: one of the 4 imperial gladiatorial schools. Built by Domition (AD 81-96)
Ludus Gallicus: one of the 4 imperial gladiatorial schools. Built by Domitian (AD 81-96)
Ludus Dacius: construction started under Domitian and completed under Trajan
Ludus Matutinus: only trained venatores and bestiarii (those who fought with animals)
Terms:
tiro - beginner gladiator
magistri - formerly trained gladiators who had fought in the arena
lanista - oversaw the training process
doctores - specialists in the different style of combat
rudis - wooden sword used by gladiators in training
Photograph (center): Lanista and Thracian mosaic detail, Verona Museum. Photo courtesy of Barbara McManus and VRoma.
Selected list of primary sources on the gladiatorial combats:
Cassius Dio. Roman History. 17.
Livy. Roman History. 9.40.
Martial. Spectacles. 24.
Nicolaus of Damascus. Athletics. 4.153.
Petronius. Satyricon. 117.
Silius Italicus. Punica. 11.51.
Suetonius. Life of Claudius. 8.4 and 34.1.
Ulpian. Digest. 3.1.1.6.
Cassius Dio. Roman History. 17.
Livy. Roman History. 9.40.
Martial. Spectacles. 24.
Nicolaus of Damascus. Athletics. 4.153.
Petronius. Satyricon. 117.
Silius Italicus. Punica. 11.51.
Suetonius. Life of Claudius. 8.4 and 34.1.
Ulpian. Digest. 3.1.1.6.
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Please see the above video for a documentary special on the gladiators of ancient Rome.
Please see the above video for a documentary special on the 'gladiator graveyard' of ancient Ephesus.
Please see the above video for a documentary special on the 'gladiator games: the Roman bloodsport'.
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Please click on the following link to be connected to the website for the Roman Great Games at Nîmes. Below you will find the link to a preview video of the modern historical reenactment of the games.
 Photograph: Oil canvas, Jean-Léon Gérôme. “Pollice Verso” (1892).
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