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{{Short description|Reuse of abandoned buildings or sites}}
[[File:Marlbrook Landfill Site - Remediation in progress. - geograph.org.uk - 1120733.jpg|thumb|Remediation process in Marlbrook at a former landfill site]]
'''Land recycling''' is the [[reuse]] of abandoned, vacant, or underused properties for [[redevelopment]] or repurposing.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Land recycling and densification — European Environment Agency|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/land-recycling-and-densification|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.eea.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>
Land recycling aims to ensure the reuse of [[developed land]] as part of: new developments; [[decontamination|cleaning up]] contaminated properties; reuse and/or making use of used land surrounded by development or nearby infrastructure. End-uses from land recycling may include: [[mixed-use development|mixed-use]], residential, commercial, or industrial developments; and/or [[Public space|public open space]] such as [[urban open space]] used by [[urban park]]s, [[community garden]]s; or larger [[open space reserve]]s such as [[regional park]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/documents/anat_bf_redev_101106.pdf|title=Anatomy of Brownfields Redevelopment|publisher=EPA|year=2015|pages=1}}</ref>
Since many abandoned and underutilized properties lie within economically distressed and disadvantaged communities, land recycling often benefits and stimulates re-investment in historically under-served areas. However, due to the previous use of these sites, there can be many health hazards when dealing with the land, such as metals, plastics, asbestos, glass shards, gas generation, and radioactive substances.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181922310|title=Recycling derelict land|date=1991|others=George Fleming, Institution of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford|isbn=0-7277-1318-3|location=London|pages=16|oclc=181922310}}</ref> Such environmentally distressed properties, with site clean-up and mitigation considerations, are commonly referred to as [[brownfield]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref>
== Types
=== Adaptive
The most common form of land recycling is the [[redevelopment]] of abandoned or unused building properties.<ref>{{
The adaptive process also provides a more sustainable way to promote environmentally friendly infrastructure.<ref name=":9" /> It also reduces the amount of pollutants that can contaminate the soil and water around the abandoned building.<ref name=":8" /> This can be particularly beneficial when repurposing buildings which are near schools, residential neighborhoods, or other workplaces by mitigating occupational hazards from such contaminants commonly found in construction.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saleh, Tarek M.|title=Building green via design for deconstruction and adaptive reuse|date=2009|publisher=University of Florida|oclc=665095445}}</ref> This is considered more economically friendly, when accounting for direct and indirect cost savings to the construction company and to the building owner.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Laefer Debra F.|author-link1=Debra Laefer|last2=Manke Jonathan P.|date=2008-03-01|title=Building Reuse Assessment for Sustainable Urban Reconstruction|journal=Journal of Construction Engineering and Management|volume=134|issue=3|pages=217–227|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2008)134:3(217)|hdl=10197/2278|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The cost of producing new materials and the services that come with manufacturing these products are much more costly than repurposing existing buildings.
=== Brownfield Redevelopment ===▼
The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] classifies a [[Brownfield land|brownfield]] as "A brownfield is a property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant."<ref>{{Cite web|title=EPA Brownfields|date=14 November 2013|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields}}</ref> Currently in the United States there are more than 450,000 brownfields, which when improved have been shown to improve the surrounding environmental stress.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program|title=Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program|last=US EPA|first=OLEM|date=2014-01-08|website=US EPA|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> Funding for these hazardous sites may be obtained through the EPA's Brownfields and Land Revitalization Program which empowers municipalities, landholders, and land developers to safely clean up and repurpose the land.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EPA Brownfields and Land Revitalization Program|date=8 January 2014|url=https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-epas-brownfields-program}}</ref>
=== Non-
Land
=== Other terms ===
[[File:Baulücke in Köln-Weidenpesch (9506).jpg|thumb|Example of a potential site for urban infill development]]
Other commonly used terms can relate to or serve as synonyms of land recycling:
* '''[[Infill|Infill development]]''': development that takes place within existing communities, making maximum use of the existing [[infrastructure]] instead of building on previously undeveloped land;
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Rather than take advantage of existing infrastructure such as roads, public transit, and public works, building sprawl projects abandons these resources and demands further consumption of land and resources.
Land recycling offers an alternative to sprawl development. It reuses vital infrastructure and public resources and creates compact, full-service neighborhoods that reduce vehicle use and carbon dependence.<ref name=":18" /> Rebuilding in urban neighborhoods generates reinvestment in vibrant economic and cultural centers, rather than drawing away much-needed resources{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}. As daily commute times decrease due to proximity to urban centres, quality of life can also be increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|
===Directing development to urban cores===
Redirecting population growth and growth of businesses to already urbanized areas can help in the fostering of sustainable communities, as buildings are already near existing infrastructure and amenities, not requiring new infrastructure to be built as would be the case in greenfield development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.cclr.org}}</ref> Applying sustainable principles to land use and growth management requires that growth be redirected from scattered fringe areas back to our urban cores, where people, services and infrastructure already exist. Building up urban areas positively increases population density, providing the critical mass to support local services from coffee shops to grocery stores, public transit to libraries and symphony halls{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}. Land recycling can also assist in the creation of affordable housing, as it increases housing stocks due to its use of land previously unused for residential purposes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An introduction to brownfield: the land
===Addressing climate change===
Land recycling effectively curbs [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse-gas]] emissions by encouraging smart, compact growth that reduces [[vehicle dependence]]. Redevelopment within an urban core reduces commuting distances and therefore average vehicle miles traveled (VMTs) by creating residential, office, and other amenities within close proximity.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=
=== Leaders in Energy and Environmental Design Certification ===
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=== Sustainable Land Remediation and Planning ===
[[File:
Land development is an aspect of land recycling which involves [[urbanization]] and development of land, by reusing previously abandoned and unused land in commercial areas of larger cities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cclr.org/3-benefits-land-recycling|title=3. Benefits of Land Recycling {{!}} CCLR - Center for Creative Land Recycling|website=www.cclr.org|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> [[Sustainable remediation|Sustainable Remediation]] is an aspect of land development where there is an increased focus the costs and benefits of certain aspects of land recycling.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Forbes|first1=Rose|last2=Favara|first2=Paul|last3=Lovenburg|first3=John|last4=Downey|first4=Doug|last5=de Groot|first5=Pat|date=2009|title=Sustainable Remediation|journal=The Military Engineer|volume=101|issue=659|pages=69–70|jstor=44530662|issn=0026-3982}}</ref> It aims to look at land remediation holistically considering not just the current environmental implications but also the long term social and economic implications.<ref name=":3" /> Co-design, is much more intentional and focuses on a multitude solutions by completing cost-benefit analyses, engaging in more inclusive conversations with stakeholders along with environmental impacts like energy and resources which may be consumed during land recycling projects.<ref name=":3" /> The Society of American Military Engineers have focused on using policy implemented by the American department of defense to ensure more sustainable practices.<ref name=":3" /> Looking more specifically some efforts being implemented by the S.A.M.E include composition of a sustainability remediation tool which allows for estimates of specific technologies to be considered when analyzing land remediation.<ref name=":3" /> Planning and design for land development and transformation by using co-design has resulted in better shared information on systems.<ref name=":3" /> These have worked well on sustainable land development as well as improved communication and handling of barriers, ultimately creating a better integrated program on a global scale.
It has been used in cities in Australia as part of global urban research programs to create land remediation solutions.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Webb|first1=Robert|last2=Bai|first2=Xuemei|last3=Smith|first3=Mark Stafford|last4=Costanza|first4=Robert|last5=Griggs|first5=David|last6=Moglia|first6=Magnus|last7=Neuman|first7=Michael|last8=Newman|first8=Peter|last9=Newton|first9=Peter|last10=Norman|first10=Barbara|last11=Ryan|first11=Chris|date=February 2018|title=Sustainable urban systems: Co-design and framing for transformation|journal=Ambio|language=en|volume=47|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1007/s13280-017-0934-6|issn=0044-7447|pmc=5709263|pmid=28766172|bibcode=2018Ambio..47...57W }}</ref> The overall process involves four phases which included co-design which resulted in outcomes for policy and practice, research and knowledge and solution development.<ref name=":4" /> In this case, the sustainable remediation framework was created and used to create better co-design processes starting small scale locally and extending out to global scales.<ref name=":4" /> The process was split into three components starting with assisting in creating urban goals on each level of the scale which align with world views and influence, the policies which are in place and finally, to local technology and knowledge.<ref name=":4" /> Then shifting to look at how the urban goals affect urban systems like finances, environmental, and social capital as well as more physical systems like energy and water.<ref name=":4" /> Allowing better understanding of the costs and benefits of different land remediation goals. Then the process then looks more long term and focuses on the outcomes over time to understand the overarching effects of the implemented land remediation goals.<ref name=":4" /> Finally, the process looks at the major parts of the framework which need to be improved or need more focus.<ref name=":4" />
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A push for sustainable land remediation can be seen all over the world, when looking at urban planning and can also be connected to large public health scares or changes in social norms.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Douglas|first=Ian|date=2019-01-02|title=50 years change in urban land use and ecological planning globally in the era of design with nature|journal=Ecosystem Health and Sustainability|volume=5|issue=1|pages=185–198|doi=10.1080/20964129.2019.1656111|issn=2096-4129|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the UK after cholera outbreaks in the 19th century, people started to pay more attention to the way homes were being built and where they were being built.<ref name=":5" /> Now as urbanization has increased, the push is for using land which has already been partially or completely developed and transforming it into something different. The inclusion of garden cities, which are cities built with the intention of avoiding disrupting previously present natural ecosystems.<ref name=":5" /> An example is the [[Hampstead Garden Suburb]] which began formulating plans that focused on preservation of natural beauty in the area by avoiding the removal of plant life that was already there and working to build around it.<ref name=":5" /> This also spread to other countries in Europe with Germany building its first garden city in 1909 and [[Canberra]] in Australia where the main goal was to reestablish and maintain forest cover around the city.<ref name=":5" /> Later, Design with Nature written by [[Ian McHarg]], influenced a lot of the sustainable development goals which were implemented all over the world.<ref name=":5" />
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==Challenges==
While land recycling has great economic and environmental benefits, without the right tools, skills, and knowledge, reusing land can produce certain challenges. Obstacles to redevelopment may include lack of funding and increased scrutiny. These can particularly impede projects on brownfields, which carry the stigma of contamination.
===Market factors===
====Greenfields competition====
Brownfields and infill sites must compete with attractive, undeveloped suburban and rural land, also called [[greenfield land]]. When considering the real or perceived risks and costs of land recycling, a greenfield development may seem more economically sensible as the immediate costs are typically less than developing on an infill or brownfield site.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=De Sousa|first=Christopher|date=November 2000|title=Brownfield Redevelopment versus Greenfield Development: A Private Sector Perspective on the Costs and Risks Associated with Brownfield Redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09640560020001719|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|language=en|volume=43|issue=6|pages=831–853|doi=10.1080/09640560020001719|bibcode=2000JEPM...43..831D |s2cid=216141628 |issn=0964-0568}}</ref> However, it is important to consider the long-term economic gain of land recycling and the added social and environmental rewards of sustainable development.
===Brownfields===
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==== Brownfield Remediation ====
Due to differences in regulation, production techniques, and heavy industrial use in the past, it is difficult to attract those willing to tackle the uncertainty and obstacles associated with potential clean up.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trouw|first1=Michael|last2=Weiler|first2=Stephan|last3=Silverstein|first3=Jesse|date=2020-03-06|title=Brownfield Development: Uncertainty, Asymmetric Information, and Risk Premia|journal=Sustainability|volume=12|issue=5|pages=2046|doi=10.3390/su12052046|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sites that are contaminated can cause public health risks, including physical risks like uncovered holes, unsafe structures, and sharp objects. Past industrial activities can leave behind chemical contamination, and people may become exposed to these chemicals when entering the properties.<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2005|title=Public Health and BrownfieldsIn Wisconsin|url=https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/publications/p4/p44980.pdf
====Uncertainty and costs====
Assessing whether or not a site is contaminated can be a costly process that deters land reuse.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|title=Brownfields|url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/PeBBu/scope_definition/themes/04_brownfields.htm|access-date=2021-09-26|website=www.reading.ac.uk}}</ref> Potential purchasers are often unwilling or unable to risk an investment in a site assessment for a property that may require cleanup they cannot afford. Even if a site has been purchased, concerns over cleanup costs may further stall redevelopment. Uncertainty over time, cost or a high price for cleanup leaves many brownfield sites in development limbo.
====Project financing====
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==== Environmental Justice ====
The concern for contamination of new occupants of a redeveloped brownfield is a concern. Communities of color and low income are disproportionately affected by pollution and brownfield sites offer a higher risk to the communities surrounding them.
===Environmental-liability risks===
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== Implementations ==
=== Land Recycling in the EU ===
An in-depth examination of land recycling in different countries shows many different perspectives on implementations of land recycling.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trefzer|first1=Annette|last2=Jackson|first2=Jeffrey T.|last3=McKee|first3=Kathryn|last4=Dellinger|first4=Kirsten|date=2014|title=Introduction: The Global South and/in the Global North: Interdisciplinary Investigations|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/585671|journal=The Global South|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=1–15|doi=10.2979/globalsouth.8.2.1|s2cid=141973073|issn=1932-8656}}</ref> The general European focus looked at land use in the [[European Union|EU]] and the importance of reducing new land use as well as reducing addition of [[impervious surface]] which disrupts natural ecosystems.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/land-recycling-in-europe|title=Land recycling in Europe|website=European Environment Agency|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28}}</ref> Beginning with research, a database maintained by the [[Copernicus Programme]] is used in the EU to monitor land use changes, its main components are Corine Land Cover (CLC) and Urban Atlas (UA).<ref name=":0" /> Each of these has its own indicators for measuring increasing land use and increasing urbanization, for Corine Land Cover the flows of land recycling are split based on previously developed and undeveloped land because they each have different potential to produce green urban infrastructure.<ref name=":0" /> For the Urban Atlas database, the focus is the same but more geographically and theme specific accuracy so it used to test more of the land recycling indicators.<ref name=":0" /> The indicators were tested in all the countries in Europe from 1990
=== Land Recycling in Germany ===
On a smaller scale, Germany focused on limiting the amount of [[land conversion]] specifically for settling and traffic to 30 ha per day starting in 2002 as a part of the National Sustainability Strategy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Dillmann|first1=Oliver|last2=Beckmann|first2=Volker|date=2018-12-12|title=Do Administrative Incentives for the Containment of Cities Work? An Analysis of the Accelerated Procedure for Binding Land-Use Plans for Inner Urban Development in Germany|journal=Sustainability|volume=10|issue=12|pages=4745|doi=10.3390/su10124745|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> They also incentivized urban development and improvement by making it easier for contractors to obtain permits to develop urban areas.<ref name=":1" /> Studies were done to see the effectiveness of the implementation of this policy by looking at [[Stralsund]].<ref name=":1" /> The city was chosen for its ability to be developed as a mostly rural part of [[Germany]] as well as for its appeal for not only younger families looking for in expensive places to settle but also for companies looking for places to develop.<ref name=":1" /> The land development of Stralsund was then monitored from 1992 to 2018, the focus of development started with industrialization of the outskirts of the town, then brownfield transformation and finally, residential development.<ref name=":1" /> Cost benefit also played a big role in the conversion of pieces of land which hadn't been in use for a long period of time like, a military property.<ref name=":1" /> As development continued, there was also compensation for interference with ecosystems and natural spaces by addition of green spaces and by planting trees.<ref name=":1" /> When comparing both the old land use plan and the new land use plan, they found that the cost of the new had the potential to save 55% of costs, but ultimately there wasn't much change between the results of the old and the new land use plans.<ref name=":1" /> The application of an accelerated inner urban development plan was neither advantageous nor non-advantageous, for Stralsund, Germany, because of the previous structure of the policy.<ref name=":1" /> The country of Germany also had goals to reach [[land degradation]] neutrality by 2030 by reaching its sustainable development goals specifically based on soil improvement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Rong|last2=Wang|first2=Rongyu|last3=Sedlin|first3=Thomas|date=2014-05-28|title=Land-Development Offset Policies in the Quest for Sustainability: What Can China Learn from Germany?|journal=Sustainability|volume=6|issue=6|pages=3400–3430|doi=10.3390/su6063400|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/9521|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wunder|first1=Stephanie|last2=Bodle|first2=Ralph|date=February 2019|title=Achieving land degradation neutrality in Germany: Implementation process and design of a land use change based indicator|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=92|pages=46–55|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2018.09.022|bibcode=2019ESPol..92...46W |s2cid=159012665|issn=1462-9011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/topics/soil-agriculture/land-use-reduction/brownfield-redevelopment-inner-urban-development|title=Brownfield redevelopment and inner urban development|last=Stallmann|first=Martin|date=2014-02-13|website=Umweltbundesamt|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28}}</ref>
Germany has focused a lot on brownfield development as much of Europe with that including not just contaminated land but also land which was previously developed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ganser|first1=Robin|last2=Williams|first2=Katie|date=2007-04-13|title=Brownfield Development: Are We Using the Right Targets? Evidence from England and Germany|journal=European Planning Studies|volume=15|issue=5|pages=603–622|doi=10.1080/09654310600852654|s2cid=154584830|issn=0965-4313}}</ref> The push for target amounts of recycled land stems from status quo influence with other countries development of brownfield mitigation work. In [[Leipzig|Leipzig, Germany]] improvement of land and community quality was done by creating more urban forestry.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Rink|first1=Dieter|last2=Arndt|first2=Thomas|date=2016|title=Investigating perception of green structure configuration for afforestation in urban brownfield development by visual methods—A case study in Leipzig, Germany|journal=Urban Forestry & Urban Greening|volume=15|pages=65–74|doi=10.1016/j.ufug.2015.11.010|issn=1618-8667}}</ref> With increased research of the
=== Land Recycling Programs in the United States ===
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===== Foundation Hotel =====
The Foundation Hotel in [[Detroit|Detroit, Michigan]] is an [[Adaptive reuse]] project designed by local firm McIntosh Poris Associates (MPA) with collaboration with Simone Deary Design group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/13279-detroit-foundation-hotel-by-mcintosh-poris-associates?v=preview|title=Detroit Foundation Hotel by McIntosh Poris Associates|website=www.architecturalrecord.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> This project actually combined two adjacent buildings that were not in use. The main building was built in 1929 and originally housed the
▲The Foundation Hotel in [[Detroit|Detroit, Michigan]] is an [[Adaptive reuse]] project designed by local firm McIntosh Poris Associates (MPA) with collaboration with Simone Deary Design group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/13279-detroit-foundation-hotel-by-mcintosh-poris-associates?v=preview|title=Detroit Foundation Hotel by McIntosh Poris Associates|website=www.architecturalrecord.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> This project actually combined two adjacent buildings that were not in use. The main building was built in 1929 and originally housed the city’s oldest fire department. The additional building was once home to Pontchartrain Wine Cellars.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.curbed.com/2017/11/2/16598172/adaptive-reuse-architecture-united-states|title=9 projects that reimagine old buildings, from factories to firehouses|last=Barber|first=Megan|date=2017-11-02|website=Curbed|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref> In 2013 the fire department moved out and the building was left unoccupied for over a year until bought by Aparium Hotel Group.
This project focused on the new needs of the community while still preserving the aesthetic and incorporated [[Historic preservation]] in their work. This is significant because as stated above, gentrification can be a major negative effect during land recycling and the attempt to maintain the existing exterior of the building counteracts this.
===== Wonder Bread Factory =====
[[Washington, D.C.]]’s [[Wonder Bread]] Factory sat in Shaw neighborhood from early 1913 to the mid
This building also pulled on [[Historic preservation]] by minimizing the level of exterior renovation as much as possible while still creating a new use for a space that was highly needed in the community. This building is 98,000 square feet and is now [[Loft]] styles offices available to the public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://douglasdevelopment.com/properties/wonder-bread-factory/|title=Wonder Bread Factory {{!}} Douglas Development|website=douglasdevelopment.com|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>
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