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{{Short description|Life force energy, power, effectiveness, and prestige in Pacific Island culture}}
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{{EngvarB|date=October 2015}}
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{{Paranormal}}
''Mana'' has been discussed mostly in relation to cultures of [[Polynesian mythology|Polynesia]], but also of [[Melanesia]], notably the [[Solomon Islands]]<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Columbia University Press| last = Keesing| first = Roger| title = Kwaio Religion: The Living and the Dead in a Solomon Island Society| location = New York| date = 1982}}</ref>{{sfn|Keesing|1984}} and [[Vanuatu]].<ref name="Codrington">{{harvcoltxt|Codrington|1891|p=118 ff.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2307/2843828| issn = 0307-3114| volume = 61| pages = 157–166| last = Ivens| first = W. G.| title = The Place of Vui and Tamate in the Religion of Mota.| journal = The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | date = 1931| jstor = 2843828}}</ref>{{sfn|Mondragón|2004}}<ref>{{Citation
In the 19th century, scholars compared ''mana'' to similar concepts such as the ''[[orenda]]'' of the [[Iroquois Indian]]s and theorized that ''mana'' was a universal phenomenon that explained the [[origin of religion]]s.<ref name="britannica" />▼
| last = François
| first = Alexandre
| author-link =Alexandre François
| contribution = Shadows of bygone lives: The histories of spiritual words in northern Vanuatu
| editor1-last = Mailhammer
| editor1-first = Robert
| title = Lexical and structural etymology: Beyond word histories
| volume = 11
| pages = 185–244
| publisher = DeGruyter Mouton
| place = Berlin
| year = 2013
| series = Studies in Language Change
| isbn =
| contribution-url = https://marama.huma-num.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2013_Shadows-of-bygone-lives-The-histories-of-spiritual-words-in-northern-Vanuatu.pdf
| chapter-format =
| url=
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1353/ol.2022.0017| volume = 61| issue = 1| pages = 212–255| last = François| first = Alexandre | title = Awesome forces and warning signs: Charting the semantic history of *tabu words in Vanuatu| journal = Oceanic Linguistics| access-date = 2022-07-11| date = 2022| url = https://marama.huma-num.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2022_Awesome-Forces_Tabu_Vanuatu_OceanicLinguistics.pdf |ref=tabu}}</ref>
▲In the 19th century, scholars compared ''mana'' to similar concepts such as the ''[[orenda]]'' of the [[Iroquois
==Etymology==
The [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]] word
=={{anchor|In Polynesian culture}}Polynesian culture==
''Mana'' is a foundation of [[Polynesian culture|Polynesian theology]], a spiritual quality with a supernatural origin and a sacred, impersonal force. To have ''mana'' implies influence, [[authority]], and [[efficacy]]: the ability to perform in a given situation. The quality of ''mana'' is not limited to individuals; peoples, governments, places and inanimate objects may also possess ''mana'', and its possessors are accorded respect. ''Mana'' protects its protector and they depend on each other for growth both positive and negative. It depends on the person where he takes his ''mana''.{{cn|date=May 2023}}
In Polynesia, ''mana'' was traditionally seen as a "[[Transcendence (philosophy)|transcendent]] power that [[Blessing|blesses]]" that can "express itself directly" through various ways, but most often shows itself through the [[speech]], movement, or [[Tradition|traditional]] [[ritual]] of a "[[prophet]], [[priest]], or [[king]]."<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |page=730 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref>
==={{anchor|In Hawaiian and Tahitian culture}}Hawaiian and Tahitian culture===
In [[Hawaii]]an and [[Tahiti]]an
Ancient Hawaiians also believed that the island of [[Molokaʻi]] possessed ''mana'', compared with its neighboring islands. Before the unification of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] by [[Kamehameha I|King Kamehameha I]], battles were fought for possession of the island and its south-shore fish ponds which existed until the late 19th century.{{cn|date=May 2023}}
A person may gain ''mana'' by ''[[Pono (word)|pono]]'' (right actions). In ancient Hawaii, there were two paths to ''mana'': sexual means or violence. In at least this tradition, nature is seen as dualistic, and everything has a counterpart. A balance between the gods [[Kū]] and [[Lono]] formed, through whom are the two paths to ''mana'' (''ʻimihaku'', or the search for ''mana''). Kū, the god of war and politics, offers ''mana'' through violence; this was how Kamehameha gained his ''mana''. Lono, the god of peace and fertility, offers ''mana'' through sexuality.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}
Prayers were believed to have mana, which was sent to the akua at the end when the priest usually said "amama ua noa," meaning "the prayer is now free or flown."<ref>{{Cite book|author=Cunningham, Scott
=== {{anchor|In New Zealand culture}}Māori (New Zealand) culture ===
===={{anchor|In Māori usage}}Māori use====
<blockquote>Spiritual power and authority as opposed to the purely psychic and natural force — ihi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Te Ao Hurihuri: The World Moves |last=Marsden|first=Māori|publisher=Hicks Smith|year=1975|editor-last=King|editor-first=Michael |location=Wellington|page=145 |chapter=God, Man, and the Universe}}</ref></blockquote>
According to the [[New Zealand Ministry of Justice]]:▼
{{blockquote|Mana and [[Tapu (Polynesian culture)|tapu]] are concepts which have both been attributed single-worded definitions by contemporary writers. As concepts, especially Maori concepts they can not easily be translated into a single English definition. Both mana and tapu take on a whole range of related meanings depending on their association and the context in which they are being used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/h/he-hinatore-ki-te-ao-maori-a-glimpse-into-the-maori-world/part-1-traditional-maori-concepts/mana-and-tapu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522222543/http://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/h/he-hinatore-ki-te-ao-maori-a-glimpse-into-the-maori-world/part-1-traditional-maori-concepts/mana-and-tapu |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-05-22 |title=Mana and Tapu |publisher=Ministry of Justice, New Zealand |access-date=2015-01-26}}</ref>}}▼
According to [[Margaret Mutu]], ''mana'' in its traditional sense means:
===={{anchor|General English usage}}General English usage====▼
In contemporary [[New Zealand English]], the word "mana" refers to a person or organization of people of great personal prestige and character.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzealandatoz.com/index.php?pageid=357 |title=Kiwi (NZ) to English Dictionary |publisher=New Zealand A to Z |access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> The increased use of the term ''mana'' in New Zealand society is the result of the politicization of Māori issues stemming from the [[Māori Renaissance]].▼
<blockquote>Power, authority, ownership, status, influence, dignity, respect derived from the [[atua]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=State of Māori Rights|last=Mutu|first=Margaret|publisher=Huia|year=2011|location=Wellington|page=213}}</ref><ref name=":0" /></blockquote>
=={{anchor|The academic study of mana}}Academic study==▼
[[File:StateLibQld 1 116272 Southern Cross (ship).jpg|thumb|275px|alt=Photo of a three-masted schooner|The 1891 ''[[Southern Cross (1891 Melanesian Mission ship)|Southern Cross]]'', one of the ships at [[Norfolk Island]]'s [[Melanesian Mission]] where Codrington taught and worked]]▼
In terms of leadership, [[Ngāti Kahungunu]] legal scholar Carwyn Jones comments: "Mana is the central concept that underlies Māori leadership and accountability." He also considers ''mana'' as a fundamental aspect of the [[Māori politics#Māori and colonial politics|constitutional traditions of Māori society]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=Carwyn|date=2014|title=A Māori Constitutional Tradition |url=https://www.victoria.ac.nz/law/centres/nzcpl/publications/nz-journal-of-public-and-international-law/previous-issues/volume-121,-september-2014/Jones.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222085535/https://www.victoria.ac.nz/law/centres/nzcpl/publications/nz-journal-of-public-and-international-law/previous-issues/volume-121,-september-2014/Jones.pdf |archive-date=2018-02-22 |url-status=live|journal=New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law|volume=11|issue=3 |pages=187–204}}</ref>
Missionary [[Robert Henry Codrington]] traveled widely in [[Melanesia]], publishing several studies of its language and culture. His 1891 book ''The Melanesians: Studies in their Anthropology and Folk-Lore'' contains the first detailed description of ''mana'' in English.<ref name="Blust" /> Codrington defines it as "a force altogether distinct from physical power, which acts in all kinds of ways for good and evil, and which it is of the greatest advantage to possess or control".<ref name="Codrington">{{cite book|last1=Codrington|first1=Robert Henry|title=The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-lore|date=1891|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=New York|isbn=9780486202587|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiMHAQAAIAAJ&q=The+Melanesians:+Studies+in+Their+Anthropology+and+Folklore.|language=en}}</ref>▼
▲According to the [[New Zealand Ministry of Justice]]:
▲{{blockquote|Mana and [[Tapu (Polynesian culture)|tapu]] are concepts which have both been attributed single-worded definitions by contemporary writers. As concepts, especially Maori concepts they can not easily be translated into a single English definition. Both mana and tapu take on a whole range of related meanings depending on their association and the context in which they are being used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/h/he-hinatore-ki-te-ao-maori-a-glimpse-into-the-maori-world/part-1-traditional-maori-concepts/mana-and-tapu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522222543/http://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/h/he-hinatore-ki-te-ao-maori-a-glimpse-into-the-maori-world/part-1-traditional-maori-concepts/mana-and-tapu
A tribe with ''mana whenua'' must have demonstrated their authority over a territory.
▲===={{anchor|General English usage}}General English usage====
▲In contemporary [[New Zealand English]], the word "mana" refers to a person or
▲=={{anchor|The academic study of mana}}Academic study==
▲[[File:StateLibQld 1 116272 Southern Cross (ship).jpg|thumb|275px|alt=Photo of a three-masted schooner|The 1891 ''[[Southern Cross (1891 Melanesian Mission ship)|Southern Cross]]'', one of the ships at [[Norfolk Island]]'s [[Melanesian Mission]] where Codrington taught and worked]]
▲Missionary [[Robert Henry Codrington]] traveled widely in [[Melanesia]], publishing several studies of its language and culture. His 1891 book ''The Melanesians: Studies in their Anthropology and Folk-Lore'' contains the first detailed description of ''mana'' in English.<ref name="Blust" /> Codrington defines it as "a force altogether distinct from physical power, which acts in all kinds of ways for good and evil, and which it is of the greatest advantage to possess or control".<ref name="Codrington"
==={{anchor|Pre-animistic phase of religion}}Pre-animism===
Describing pre-animism, [[Robert Ranulph Marett]] cited the Melanesian ''mana'' (primarily with Codrington's work): "When the science of Comparative Religion employs a native expression such as mana, it is obliged to disregard to some extent its original or local meaning. Science, then, may adopt mana as a general category ... ".<ref name="Marett">{{cite book |last1=Marett |first1=Robert Randolph |title=Threshold of Religion |date=2013 |publisher=Hardpress Ltd |isbn=978-1-313-15196-2}}</ref>{{rp|99}} In Melanesia the ''[[animae]]'' are the souls of living men, the ghosts of deceased men, and spirits "of ghost-like appearance" or imitating living people. Spirits can inhabit other objects, such as animals or stones.<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|115–120}}
The most significant property of ''mana'' is that it is distinct from, and exists independently of, its source. ''Animae'' act only through ''mana''. It is impersonal, undistinguished, and (like energy) transmissible between objects, which can have more or less of it. ''Mana'' is perceptible, appearing as a "Power of awfulness" (in the sense of awe or wonder).<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|12–13}} Objects possessing it impress an observer with "respect, veneration, propitiation, service" emanating from the ''mana's'' power. Marett lists a number of objects habitually possessing ''mana'': "startling manifestations of nature", "curious stones", animals, "human remains", blood,<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|2}} thunderstorms, eclipses, eruptions, glaciers, and the sound of a [[bullroarer]].<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|14–17}}
If ''mana'' is a distinct power, it may be treated distinctly. Marett distinguishes [[incantation|spell]]s, which treat ''mana'' quasi-objectively, and [[prayer]]s (which address the ''anima''). An ''anima'' may have departed, leaving ''mana'' in the form of a spell which can be addressed by [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]]. Although Marett postulates [[Urreligion|an earlier pre-animistic phase]], a "rudimentary religion" or "[[magico-religious]]" phase in which the ''mana'' figures without ''animae'', "no island of pure 'pre-animism' is to be found."<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|xxvi}} Like Tylor, he theorizes a thread of commonality between animism and pre-animism identified with the [[supernatural]]—the "mysterious", as opposed to the reasonable.<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|22}}
===Durkheim's totemism===
In 1912, French sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]] examined [[totemism (Durkheim)|totemism]], the religion of the Aboriginal Australians, from a sociological and theological point of view, describing [[collective effervescence]] as originating in the idea of the totemic principle or ''Mana''.{{cn|date=May 2023}}
==={{anchor|Criticisms}}Criticism===
In 1936, [[Ian Hogbin]] criticised the universality of Marett's pre-animism: "Mana is by no means universal and, consequently, to adopt it as a basis on which to build up a general theory of primitive religion is not only erroneous but indeed fallacious".<ref name="Mana">{{cite journal|last1=Hogbin|first1=H. Ian|title=Mana |journal=Oceania|date=March 1936|volume=6|issue=3|pages=241–274|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1936.tb00187.x}}</ref> However, Marett intended the concept as an [[abstraction]].<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|99}} Spells, for example, may be found "from Central Australia to Scotland."<ref name="Marett"/>{{rp|55}}
Early 20th-century scholars also saw ''mana'' as a universal concept, found in all human cultures and expressing fundamental human awareness of a sacred life energy. In his 1904 essay, "Outline of a General Theory of Magic", [[Marcel Mauss]] drew on the writings of Codrington and others to paint a picture of ''mana'' as "power ''[[wikt:par excellence|par excellence]]'', the genuine effectiveness of things which corroborates their practical actions without annihilating them".<ref name="Mauss">{{cite book|last1=Mauss|first1=Marcel|title=A General Theory of Magic|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=
Mauss and his collaborator, [[Henri Hubert]], were criticised for this position when their 1904 ''Outline of a General Theory of Magic'' was published. "No one questioned the existence of the notion of mana", wrote Mauss's biographer [[Marcel Fournier]], "but Hubert and Mauss were criticized for giving it a universal dimension".<ref name="Fournier">{{cite book|last1=Fournier|first1=Marcel|title=Marcel Mauss: A Biography|date=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=
==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* ''[[Aṣẹ]]''
* ''[[Barakah]]''
* ''[[Chakra]]''
* [[Magic charm|Charm]]
*''[[The Force]]''
* ''[[Guṇa]]''
* [[Kami]] in [[Shinto]]
* ''[[Manitou]]''
* [[Melanesian mythology]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[Occult]]
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* [[Taboo]]
* [[Talisman]]
* [[Väki]]
* [[Wind Horse]]
* ''[[Yorishiro]]'' in Shinto
}}
==Notes==
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==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last1=Codrington|first1=Robert Henry|author-link=Robert Henry Codrington|title=The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-lore|date=1891|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-486-20258-7|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiMHAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+Melanesians%22+%22Studies+in+Their+Anthropology+and+Folklore%22&pg=PA119|language=en}}
* {{Cite journal| last = Keesing| first = Roger|author-link=Roger Keesing| title = Rethinking mana| journal = Journal of Anthropological Research| volume = 40| pages = 137–156| date = 1984| issue = 1| doi = 10.1086/jar.40.1.3629696| jstor = 3629696| s2cid = 224832247}}
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]]; Baker, Felicity (translator). 1987. ''Introduction to the Work of Marcel Mauss''. {{ISBN|0-415-15158-9}}.
* [[Marcel Mauss|Mauss, Marcel]]. 1924. ''Essai sur le don''.
* Meylan, Nicolas, ''Mana: A History of a Western Category'', Leiden, Brill, 2017.
* {{cite journal|last=Mondragón|first=Carlos|title=Of Winds, Worms and Mana: The
* van der Grijp, Paul. 2014. ''Manifestations of Mana: Power and Divine Inspiration in the Pacific''. Berlin: LIT Verlag.
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[[Category:Society of Samoa]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:
[[Category:Vitalism]]
[[Category:Austronesian spirituality]]
[[Category:Social concepts]]
[[Category:Social status]]
[[Category:Vanuatu mythology]]
[[Category:Culture of Vanuatu]]
[[Category:Words and phrases with no direct English translation]]
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