Thallium poisoning: Difference between revisions

'''Thallium poisoning''' is [[poisoning]] that is due to [[thallium]] and its compounds, which are often highly toxic.<ref name=EMedicine821465>{{EMedicine|article|821465|Thallium Toxicity}}</ref> Contact with skin is dangerous and adequate ventilation should be provided when melting this metal.<ref name="WebEl">{{cite web |url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Tl/biol.html |title=Biology of Thallium |website=Web Elements |access-date=2008-11-11}}</ref> Many thallium compounds are highly [[solubility|soluble]] in water and are readily absorbed through the skin.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Kemnic|first1=Tyler R.|title=Thallium Toxicity|date=2022|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513240/|work=StatPearls|place=Treasure Island (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=30020612|access-date=2022-01-28|last2=Coleman|first2=Meghan}}</ref> Exposure to them should not exceed 0.1&nbsp;[[milligram|mg]] per m² of skin in an 8&nbsp;hour time-weighted average (40-&nbsp;hour working week).

Part of the reason for thallium's high [[toxicity]] is that when present in aqueous solution as the univalent thallium(I) ion (Tl⁺) it exhibits some similarities with essential [[alkali metal]] cations, particularly [[potassium]] (owing to similar [[Ionic radius|ionic radii]]). It can thus enter the body via potassium uptake pathways.<ref>{{cite web |author=Zheng, Wei |title=A homogenous thallium flux assay for high throughput screen of potassium channels |website=Aurora Biomed |url-status=dead |url=http://www.aurorabiomed.com/download/presentations/pres09/Wei_Zheng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021160520/http://www.aurorabiomed.com/download/presentations/pres09/Wei_Zheng.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-21}}</ref> Other aspects of thallium's chemistry differ strongly from that of the alkali metals, such as its high [[Chemical affinity|affinity]] for [[sulfur]] ligands. Thus this substitution disrupts many cellular processes by interfering with the function of proteins that incorporate [[cysteine]], an amino acid containing sulfur.<ref>{{cite web |author=Mandzyuk, Bogdan |title=Eliminating thallium poisoning |url=http://sites.google.com/site/vogteh/assignments/eliminatingthalliumpoisoning-bogdanmandzyuk |access-date=25 December 2011 |archive-date=23 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023173943/https://sites.google.com/site/vogteh/assignments/eliminatingthalliumpoisoning-bogdanmandzyuk |url-status=dead }}</ref> Thallium was originally used as rat poison, but was discontinued due to the exposure risk.

Among the distinctive effects of thallium poisoning are [[Peripheral neuropathy|peripheral nerve damage]] (victims may experience a sensation of “walking"walking on hot coals”coals") and [[alopecia|hair loss]] (which led to its initial use as a [[depilatory]] before its toxicity was properly appreciated). However hair-loss generally occurs only with low doses; with high doses the thallium kills before hair loss can occur.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blum |title=The Poisoner's Handbook |page=256}}{{full citation |date=July 2020}}</ref> Thallium was an effective murder weapon before its effects became understood and an antidote ([[Prussian blue (medical use)|Prussian blue]]) was discovered.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Douglas, K.T. |author2=Bunni, M.A. |author3=Baindur, S.R. |year=1990 |title=Thallium in biochemistry |journal=International Journal of Biochemistry |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=429–438 |doi=10.1016/0020-711X(90)90254-Z |pmid=2189755}}</ref> Thallium is often imported for products like optical lenses and electronics. The US has not manufactured thallium since 1984. It has been called the "poisoner's poison" since it is colorless, odorless and tasteless; its slow-acting, painful and wide-ranging symptoms are often suggestive of a host of other illnesses and conditions.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Amy Ellis |last1=Nutt |first2=Sue |last2=Epstein |date=13 February 2011 |title=A 15&nbsp;year-old case yields a timely clue in deadly thallium poisoning |newspaper=[[The Star-Ledger]] |url=http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2011/02/thallium_is_favored_method_of.html}}</ref>

The [[odor]]less and [[taste]]less [[Thallium(I) sulfate|thallium sulfate]] was also used as [[rat poison]] and [[ant]] killer. Since 1975, this use in the [[United States]] and many other countries is prohibited due to safety concerns.<ref name="sl2001">{{cite web |title=Chemical fact sheet – Thallium |website=Spectrum Laboratories |date=April 2001 |url=http://www.speclab.com/elements/thallium.htm |access-date=2008-02-02 |archive-date=21 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221222321/http://www.speclab.com/elements/thallium.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Thallium can enter the body through inhalation, absorption through the skin, or through ingestion. Acute symptoms of thallium exposure include, but are not limited to, stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. More serious neurological symptoms don’tdon't appear until days after the metal was ingested. These include: tremors, headache, insomnia, seizures, [[ataxia]], ascending [[peripheral neuropathies]], coma, and possible death. [[Nystagmus]], [[diplopia]], and other ocular effects are also common. After many weeks, those with thallium poisoning begin to present with dermatological symptoms such as acne-like abrasions, [[hypohidrosis]], and [[alopecia]].

There are two main methods of removing both radioactive and stable isotopes of thallium from humans. First known was to use [[Prussian blue]], (potassium ferric hexacyanoferrate), which is a solid [[ion exchange]] material, which absorbs thallium. Up to 20&nbsp;g per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the person, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the [[Human feces|stool]]. [[Hemodialysis]] and [[hemoperfusion]] are also used to remove thallium from the blood stream. At later stage of the treatment additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissue.<ref>[http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/prussianblue.asp Prussian blue fact sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020123050/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/prussianblue.asp |date=2013-10-20 }} from the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Malbrain, M. L. |author2=Lambrecht, G. L. |author3=Zandijk, E. |author4=Demedts, P. A. |author5=Neels, H. M. |author6=Lambert, W. |author7=de Leenheer, A. P. |author8=Lins, R. L. |author9=Daelemans, R. | title = Treatment of Severe Thallium Intoxication | journal = Clinical Toxicology | year = 1997 | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 97–100 | doi = 10.3109/15563659709001173 | pmid = 9022660}}</ref> Other methods of treatment could be [[Gastric lavage|stomach pumping]], use of [[Activated carbon|activated charcoal]], or bowel irrigation depending on the prognosis.

There are numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2011/02/thallium_is_favored_method_of.html|title=A 15-year-old case yields a timely clue in deadly thallium poisoning|date=13 February 2011}}</ref> Because of its use for [[murder]], thallium has gained the nicknames "The Poisoner's Poison" and "Inheritance Powder" (alongside [[arsenic]]).

In [[Australia]], in the early 1950s, there was a notable spate of cases of murder or attempted murder by thallium poisoning. At this time, due to the chronic rat infestation problems in overcrowded inner-city neighbourhoods (notably in Sydney), and thallium's effectiveness as a rat poison, it was still readily available over the counter in [[New South Wales]], where [[Thallium(I) sulfate|thallium(I) sulphate]] was marketed as a commercial rat bait, under the brand ''[[Sayers, Allport & Potter#Products|Thall-rat]] .''

* In September&nbsp;1952 [[Yvonne Gladys Fletcher]], a housewife and mother of two from the inner [[Sydney, New South Wales|Sydney]] suburb of [[Newtown, New South Wales|Newtown]], was charged and tried for the murders of both her first husband, Desmond Butler (who died in 1948), and her abusive second husband, Bertrand "Bluey" Fletcher, a rat-bait layer, from whom she had obtained the thallium poison that she used to kill him earlier that year. Suspicions were raised after it became obvious to friends and neighbours that Bluey Fletcher was suffering from the same fatal illness that had killed Yvonne's first husband. A police investigation led to the exhumation and testing of Desmond Butler's remains, which showed clear evidence of thallium, and this led to Yvonne being convicted of Butler's murder. She was [[Capital punishment|sentenced to death]] but the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment after the NSW Government [[Capital punishment in Australia|abolished the death penalty]]; she was eventually released in 1964. At the time of the trial it was reported that this was the first known case in Australia of a person being convicted of murder by administering thallium.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18283164 |newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald |date=24 September 1952 |access-date=31 January 2013 |title=[no title cited]}}{{full citation|date=July 2020}}</ref><ref name="dailytelegraph.com.au">{{cite news |url=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/post-war-days-of-thallium-and-old-lace/story-fn6ccwsa-1226060629402 |first=Marea |last=Donnelly |title=Post-war days of thallium and old lace |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |place=Australia |date=23 May 2011 |access-date=31 January 2013}}</ref> The Fletcher case is also notable for the fact that one of the arresting officers was Sydney detective [[Fred Krahe]], who later became notorious for his suspected close involvement with elements of Sydney's organised crime scene and his alleged involvement in the disappearance of social activist [[Juanita Nielsen]].

* [[Félix-Roland Moumié]], a [[Cameroon]]ianCameroonian leader, was assassinated with thallium in [[Geneva, Switzerland|Geneva]] on 3&nbsp;November 1960 by a former agent of the [[SDECE]] (French secret service) probably at the request of Cameroonian authorities.

* In 1971, thallium was the main poison that [[Graham Frederick Young]] used to poison around 70&nbsp;people in the English village of [[Bovingdon]], [[Hertfordshire]], of whom three died.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2990.1991.tb00687.x |pmid=2057049 |title=What have we learnt from Graham Frederick Young? Reflections on the mechanism of thallium neurotoxicity |year=1991 |last=Cavanagh |first=J.B. |journal=Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=3–9|s2cid=25539855 }}</ref>

* From 1976 to late 1979, thallium was used as a [[chemical warfare]] agent, most notably by a unit of the [[British South Africa Police]] (BSAP) attached to the [[Selous Scouts]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Glenn |last=Cross |title=Dirty War: Rhodesia and chemical-biological warfare, 1975-19801975–1980 |place=Solihull, UK |url=http://www.helion.co.uk/dirty-war-rhodesia-and-chemical-biological-warfare-1975-1980.html |publisher=Helion & Company |year=2017 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

* In summer 1981 the [[East Germany|East German]] secret service "[[Stasi]]" poisoned dissident Wolfgang Welsch, who had previously been expelled to [[West Germany]], during his holiday in [[Israel]]. He barely survived.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.morgenpost.de/printarchiv/wissen/article102972391/Giftmord-Thallium-hat-Arsen-abgeloest.html |title=Giftmord Thallium hat Arsen abgeloest |id=Print archive article 102972391 |newspaper=Morgen Post |place=Germany |lang=de}}{{full citation |date=July 2020}}</ref>

*In 1985, spiritual leader [[Rajneesh]] first accused US President [[Ronald Reagan]] of poisoning him while he was briefly incarcerated in [[Oklahoma]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-01 |title=Rajneesh Claimed He Was Poisoned While in Oklahoma |url=https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/1990/01/20/rajneesh-claimed-he-was-poisoned-while-in-oklahoma/62577791007/ |access-date=2023-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801084023/https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/1990/01/20/rajneesh-claimed-he-was-poisoned-while-in-oklahoma/62577791007/ |archive-date=1 August 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-14 |title=Osho: "I Have Been Poisoned by Ronald Reagan's American Government." -– OSHOTimes |url=https://www.oshotimes.com/insights/the-times/power/osho-i-have-been-poisoned-by-ronald-reagans-american-government/ |access-date=2023-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814073135/https://www.oshotimes.com/insights/the-times/power/osho-i-have-been-poisoned-by-ronald-reagans-american-government/ |archive-date=14 August 2020 }}</ref> Rajneesh's accusations were not provedunsubstantiated.

* In 1988, members of the Carr family from [[Alturas, Florida|Alturas]], [[Polk County, Florida]], fell ill from what appeared to be thallium poisoning. Peggy Carr, the mother, died slowly and painfully from the poison. Her son and stepson were critically ill but eventually recovered. The Carrs' neighbor, chemist [[George Trepal|George J. Trepal]], was convicted of murdering Mrs.&nbsp;Carr and attempting to murder her family, and sentenced to death. The thallium was slipped into bottles of [[Coca-Cola]] at the Carr and Trepal homes.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Case of Trepal, George (w/m) |department=The Commission on Capital Cases |publisher=State of Florida |url=http://www.floridacapitalcases.state.fl.us/case_updates/121965.doc |access-date=2007-11-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216100348/http://www.floridacapitalcases.state.fl.us/case_updates/121965.doc |archive-date=2008-02-16}}</ref>

* In 1995, [[Zhu Ling (poisoning victim)|Zhu Ling]] was the victim of an [[Thallium poisoning case of Zhu Ling|unsolved attempted thallium poisoning]] in [[Beijing]], China. In 1994, Zhu Ling was a sophomore studying physical chemistry at [[Tsinghua University]] in Beijing. She began to show strange and debilitating symptoms at the end of 1994, when she reported experiencing acute stomach pain and extensive hair loss. Ultimately she was diagnosed on [[Usenet]] with poisoning by thallium. To this day, there is still speculation among [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese expatriates]] overseas as to the poisoner's identity. The only suspect of the police investigation, Sun Wei, is a member of a family with high-level political connections, which may have been used to halt and suppress the results of the investigation. Sun Wei was Zhu Ling's classmate and roommate in Tsinghua University from 1992–19971992 to 1997. Tsinghua University also said she was the only student who had access to thallium compounds at the school. The investigation's results have never been released to Zhu Ling's parents or the general public. However, Tsinghua University declined to issue Sun Wei's B.S. certificate and refused to provide her with the documentation needed to get a passport or visa in 1997. In 2018 the victim's hair has beenwas examined by the University of Maryland geologist Richard Ash using [[laser ablation]] [[ICP-MS]] [[mass spectrometry]].<ref name="AshHe2018">{{cite journal |last1=Ash |first1=Richard David |last2=He |first2=Min |year=2018 |title=Details of a thallium poisoning case revealed by single hair analysis using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=292 |pages=224–231 |issn=0379-0738 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.10.002 |pmid=30343235|s2cid=53036754 }}</ref> He was able to confirm the timeline and pattern of poisoning.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/12/181213190619.htm |title=Mass spectrometry sheds new light on thallium poisoning cold case |date=2018-12-13 |website=sciencedaily.com |access-date=2018-12-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/12/new-study-establishes-timeline-for-famous-thallium-poisoning-cold-case/ |author=Ouellette, Jennifer |title=Study brings us one step closer to solving 1994 thallium poisoning case |date=25 December 2018 |website=Ars Technica |access-date=26 December 2018}}</ref>

* In 1999, Norwegian [[Terje Wiik]] was sentenced to 21&nbsp;years imprisonment for poisoning his girlfriend with thallium.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.dagbladet.no/nyheter/21-ar-for-terje-wiik/65576919 |title=21 år for Terje Wiik |date=2000-02-11 |website=Dagbladet.no |access-date=2018-07-01 |language=no}}</ref>

* In June&nbsp;2004, 25&nbsp;Russian soldiers earned Honorable Mentions in the [[Darwin Awards]] after becomingbecame ill from thallium exposure when they found a can of mysterious white powder in a rubbish dump on their base at [[Khabarovsk]] in the Russian Far East. Oblivious to the danger of misusing an unidentified white powder from a military dump site, the conscripts added it to tobacco, and used it as a substitute for [[talcum powder]] on their feet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwinawards.com/stupid/stupid2004-16.html |title=White Russians |website=DarwinAwards.com |year=2004}}</ref>

* In January&nbsp;2008, 10&nbsp;members of two families associated with an [[Iraq]]iIraqi soccer club, including several children, were poisoned by cake contaminated with thallium.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Thallium Poisoning from Eating Contaminated Cake – Iraq, 2008 |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=57 |issue=37 |pages=1015–1018 |date=19 September 2008 |pmid=18802411 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5737a3.htm|author1=Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) }}</ref> FourOnce thallium poisoning was confirmed in Baghdad, the patients were transferred to the Specialty Hospital in Amman, Jordan to receive treatment which was not available in Iraq. One adult died in Iraq, includingand two children and another adult died in Jordan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al Hammouri |first1=Fawzi |last2=Darwazeh |first2=Ghaleb |last3=Said |first3=Anas |last4=Ghosh |first4=Raed Abu |date=2011-12-01 |title=Acute Thallium Poisoning: Series of Ten Cases |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-011-0165-3 |journal=Journal of Medical Toxicology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=306–311 |doi=10.1007/s13181-011-0165-3 |issn=1937-6995 |pmc=3550187 |pmid=21735311}}</ref>

* In the 2006 film ''[[Big Nothing]]'', Josie is the Wyoming Widow; a murderer who befriended men and killed them with whiskey laced with highly concentrated thallium.

* In the 2015 [[James Bond]] film ''[[Spectre (2015 film)|Spectre]]'', the [[SPECTRE|organisation of the same name]] used thallium to poison [[List of James Bond villains#Eon Productions films|Mr.&nbsp;White]] bywas lacingexposed histo mobile phone withthallium itpoisoning.

*In the 2016 TVBTV drama ''[[Two Steps From Heaven]]'', thallium was used to poison [[Bosco Wong]]'s character.

*In S6:E10 of the [[Father Brown (2013 TV series)|Father Brown Series]], Hercule Flambeau's wife poisons Father Brown with thallium in order to induce Flambeau to exchange a religious relic for her giving Brown the antidote. Guessing the substance his wife used, Flambeau gives Brown clues as to the antidote, Prussian Blue.

* {{cite web |url=httphttps://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfacts54.htmlpdf |series=ATSDR |title=ToxFAQs |department=Centers for Disease Control |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}