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{{short description|3rd
{{distinguish|Yongli Emperor}}
{{redirect|Zhu Di|the scientist|Zhu Di (scientist)|the footballer|Zhu Di (footballer)}}
{{about|the Ming dynasty emperor|other emperors who used an era name called Yongle|Yongle (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Yongle Emperor <br /> {{nobold|{{lang|zh|
| temple name = Taizong{{Efn|This temple name was conferred by the Hongxi Emperor}} ({{lang|zh|
| image = Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Chengzu.jpg
| caption = Palace portrait on a [[hanging scroll]], kept in the [[National Palace Museum]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]
| succession = [[List of emperors of the Ming dynasty|Emperor of the Ming dynasty]]
| reign = 17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424
| coronation = 17 July 1402
| cor-type = Enthronement
| predecessor = [[Jianwen Emperor]]
| successor = [[Hongxi Emperor]]
| succession1 = [[List of vassals prince peerages of Ming dynasty|Prince of Yan]]
| reign1 = 2 May 1370 – 17 July 1402
| reign-type1 = Tenure
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 = Himself as emperor
| full name = Zhu Di ({{lang|zh|
| posthumous name = '''Emperor''' Titian Hongdao Gaoming Guangyun Shengwu Shengong Chunren Zhixiao '''Wen'''{{Efn|This posthumous name was initially conferred by the Hongxi Emperor}} ({{lang|zh|
| era name = Yongle ({{lang|zh|
| era dates = 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425
| house = [[House of Zhu|Zhu]]
| dynasty = [[Ming dynasty|Ming]]
| father = [[Hongwu Emperor]]
| mother = [[Empress Ma (Hongwu)|Empress Xiaocigao]]
| religion = [[Confucianism]]
| birth_date = 2 May 1360<br>Yuan Zhizheng 20, 17th day of the 4th month<br>({{lang|zh|
| birth_place = [[Nanjing#Imperial China|Yingtian Prefecture]], [[Ming dynasty]] (present-day [[Nanjing]], [[Jiangsu|Jiangsu Province]], China)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1424|8|12|1360|5|2|df=y}}<br>Ming Yongle 22, 18th day of 7th month<br>({{lang|zh|
| death_place = Khailas-ausu (Yumuchuan), [[Ming dynasty]] (present-day [[Duolun County]], [[Inner Mongolia]], China)
| burial_date = 8 January 1425
| burial_place = Changling Mausoleum, [[Ming tombs]], [[Beijing]]
| spouse = {{Marriage|[[Empress Xu (Ming dynasty)|Empress Renxiaowen]]|1376|1407|end=d}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Hongxi Emperor]]
* [[Zhu Gaoxu]], [[Prince of Han of Ming dynasty|Prince of Han]]
* [[Zhu Gaosui]], [[Prince of Zhao (Ming dynasty)|Prince Jian of Zhao]]
* [[Zhu Gaoxi]]
* Princess Yong'an
* Princess Yongping
* Princess Ancheng
* Princess Xianning
* Princess Changning}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| pic = Yongle Emperor (Chinese characters).svg
| piccap = "Yongle Emperor" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
| picupright = 0.55
| t =
| s =
| l = "Perpetual Happiness"
| p = Yǒnglè Dì
| w = Yung<sup>3</sup>-le<sup>4</sup> Ti<sup>4</sup>
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|yong|3|l|e|4|-|d|i|4}}
| j = Wing<sup>5</sup>-lok<sup>6</sup> dai<sup>3</sup>
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|w|ing|5|l|ok|6|-|d|ai|3}}
| tl = Íng-lo̍k tē
}}
The '''Yongle Emperor''' (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name '''Zhu Di''' ({{zh|c=
Zhu Di was the fourth son of the [[Hongwu Emperor]], the founder of the [[Ming dynasty]]. He was originally [[Feoffment|enfeoffed]] as the [[Prince of Yan]] ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|
Eager to establish his own legitimacy, Zhu Di voided the Jianwen Emperor's reign and established a wide-ranging effort to destroy or falsify records concerning his childhood and rebellion.<ref name="4chan"/> This included a massive purge of the Confucian scholars in Nanjing<ref name="4chan"/> and grants of extraordinary extralegal authority to the eunuch secret police.<ref name="EunuchPower!"/> One favorite was [[Zheng He]], who employed his authority to launch major [[treasure voyages|voyages of exploration]] into the South Pacific and Indian Oceans. The difficulties in Nanjing also led the Yongle Emperor to re-establish Beiping (present-day Beijing) as the new imperial capital. He repaired and reopened the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] and, between 1406 and 1420, directed the construction of the [[Forbidden City]]. He was also responsible for the [[Porcelain Tower of Nanjing]], considered one of the wonders of the world before its destruction by the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping rebels]] in 1856. As part of his continuing attempt to control the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats, the Yongle Emperor also greatly expanded the [[Keju|imperial examination system]] in place of his father's use of personal recommendation and appointment. These scholars completed the monumental ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]'' during his reign.
The Yongle Emperor died while personally leading a military campaign against the Mongols. He was buried in the Changling Mausoleum, the central and largest mausoleum of the [[Ming tombs]] located north of Beijing.
==Youth==
The Yongle Emperor was born Zhu Di ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|
Zhu Di grew up as a prince in a loving, caring environment.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} His father supplied nothing but the best education{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} and, trusting them alone, reestablished the old feudal principalities for his many sons. Zhu Di was created [[Prince of Yan]], a location important for being both the former capital of the [[Yuan dynasty]] and the frontline of battle against [[Northern Yuan]], a successor state to the Yuan dynasty. When Zhu Di moved to [[Beiping]], the former [[Khanbaliq]] of Yuan, he found a city that had been devastated by famine and disease, but he worked with his father's general [[Xu Da]] {{ndash}} who was also his own father-in-law {{ndash}} to continue the pacification of the region.
The official Ming histories portray a Zhu Di who impressed his father with his energy, daring, and leadership amid numerous successes; nonetheless, the Ming dynasty suffered numerous reverses during his tenure and the great [[Battle of Buir Lake|victory at Buir Lake]] was won not by Zhu Di but by his brother's partisan [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]]. Similarly, when the Hongwu Emperor sent large forces to the north, they were not placed under Zhu Di's command.
==Rise to power==
{{main|Jingnan campaign}}
[[File:Yangshan Quarry - Monument Base - P1060909.JPG|thumb|right|The abandoned base for a [[Yangshan Quarry|giant stele]] that the Yongle Emperor ordered to be made for his father in 1405]]
The [[Hongwu Emperor]] was long-lived and outlived his first heir, [[Zhu Biao]], Crown Prince Yiwen. He worried about his succession and issued a series of dynastic instructions for his family, the ''[[Huang Ming Zu Xun]]''. These instructions made it clear that the rule would pass only to children from the emperor's primary consort, excluding the Prince of Yan in favour of Zhu Yunwen, Zhu Biao's son.<ref name="4chan"/> When the Hongwu Emperor died on 24 June 1398, Zhu Yunwen succeeded his grandfather as the [[Jianwen Emperor]]. In direct violation of the dynastic instructions, the Prince of Yan attempted to mourn his father in Nanjing, bringing a large armed guard with him. The imperial army was able to block him at [[Huai'an]] and, given that three of his sons were serving as hostages in the capital, the prince withdrew in disgrace.<ref name="4chan"/>
The Jianwen Emperor's harsh campaign against his weaker uncles (dubbed {{lang|zh|
In the first year, Zhu Di survived the initial assaults by superior forces under [[Geng Bingwen]] and [[Li Jinglong]] thanks to superior tactics and capable Mongol auxiliaries. He also issued numerous justifications for his rebellion, including questionable claims to have been the son of Empress Ma and bold-faced lies that his father had attempted to name him as the rightful heir, only to be thwarted by bureaucrats scheming to empower Zhu Biao's son. Whether because of this propaganda or for personal motives, Zhu Di began to receive a steady stream of turncoat eunuchs and generals who provided him with invaluable intelligence allowing a hit-and-run campaign against the imperial supply depots along the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]]. By 1402, he knew enough to be able to avoid the main hosts of the imperial army while sacking [[Xuzhou]], [[Suzhou]], and [[Yangzhou]]. The betrayal of Chen Xuan gave him the imperial army's Yangtze River fleet; the betrayal of Li Jinglong and the prince's half-brother Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu opened the gates of Nanjing on 13 July. Amid the disorder, the imperial palace quickly caught fire: Zhu Di enabled his own succession by claiming three bodies {{ndash}} charred beyond recognition {{ndash}} as the Jianwen Emperor, his consort, and their son but rumours circulated for decades that the Jianwen Emperor had escaped in disguise as a Buddhist monk.<ref name="4chan"/><ref>Lü Bi ({{lang|zh|吕毖}}). ''A Short History of the Ming Dynasty'' ({{lang|zh|《
Having captured the capital, Zhu Di now left aside his former arguments about rescuing his nephew from evil counsel and voided the Jianwen Emperor's entire reign, taking 1402 as the 35th year of the Hongwu era.<ref name="4chan"/> His own brother Zhu Biao, whom the Jianwen Emperor had posthumously elevated to emperor, was now posthumously demoted; Zhu Biao's surviving two sons were demoted to commoners and placed under house arrest; and the Jianwen Emperor's surviving younger son was imprisoned and hidden for the next 55 years. After a brief show of humility where he repeatedly refused offers to take the throne, Zhu Di accepted and proclaimed that the next year would be the first year of the Yongle era. On 17 July 1402, after a brief visit to his father's tomb, Zhu Di was crowned{{Clarify|date=October 2012}} emperor of the Ming dynasty at the age of 42. He would spend most of his early years suppressing rumours and outlaws.
{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 400
| image1 =
| image2 =
| footer = Portraits of Emperor Yongle and Empress Renxiaowen
| align = center
}}
==Becoming the emperor==
With many [[scholar-bureaucrat]]s in Nanjing refusing to recognise the legitimacy of his claim to the throne, the Yongle Emperor began a thorough purge of them and their families, including women and children. Other supporters of the Jianwen Emperor's regime were extirpated throughout the country, while a reign of terror was seen due to eunuchs settling scores with the two prior administrations.<ref name="EunuchPower!"/>
[[File:Yongle Emperor.png|thumb|Bronze statue of the Yongle Emperor. This is a replica of the original stone statue that was destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]]]]
Chinese law had long allowed for the [[nine familial exterminations|execution of families]] along with principals: The ''[[Classic of History]]'' records insubordinate officers being threatened with it as far back as the [[Shang dynasty]]. The [[Hongwu Emperor]] had fully restored the practice, punishing rebels and traitors with [[slow slicing|death by a thousand cuts]] as well as the death of their grandparents, parents, uncles and aunts, siblings by birth or [[sworn brothers|by bond]], children, nephews and nieces, grandchildren, and all cohabitants of whatever family,<ref>Chinamonitor.org. "[http://www.chinamonitor.org/article/kuxing/mingkx.htm Examination of China's Death Penalty: Torture from the Time of the Ming"] ({{lang|zh|《
The Yongle Emperor followed traditional rituals closely and held many popular beliefs. He did not overindulge in the luxuries of palace life, but still used [[Buddhism]] and Buddhist festivals to help calm civil unrest. He stopped the warring between the various Chinese tribes and reorganised the provinces to best provide peace within the Ming Empire. The Yongle Emperor was said to be an "ardent Buddhist" by Ernst Faber.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEYPAAAAYAAJ&q=ardent+buddhist+reaching|title=Chronological handbook of the history of China: a manuscript left by the late Rev. Ernst Faber|author=Ernst Faber|year=1902|publisher=Pub. by the General Evangelical Protestant missionary society of Germany|page=196|access-date=6 June 2011}}</ref>
Due to the stress and overwhelming amount of thinking involved in running a post-rebellion empire, the Yongle Emperor searched for scholars to serve in his government. He had many of the best scholars chosen as candidates and took great care in choosing them, even creating terms by which he hired people. He was also concerned about the degeneration of Buddhism in China.
==Reign==
[[File:Ming divisions.png|thumb|The Ming Empire during the Yongle Emperor's reign (as of 1409)]]
===Relations with Tibet===
In 1403, the Yongle Emperor [[Ming–Tibet relations#Religious significance|sent messages, gifts, and envoys to Tibet]] inviting [[Deshin Shekpa]], the fifth [[Gyalwa Karmapa]] of the [[Kagyu]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], to visit the imperial capital – apparently after having a vision of the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Avalokitesvara]]. After a very long journey, Deshin Shekpa arrived in [[Nanjing]] on 10 April 1407 riding on an elephant towards the imperial palace, where tens of thousands of monks greeted him.
Deshin Shekpa convinced the Yongle Emperor that there were different religions for different people, which does not mean that one is better than the others. The Karmapa was very well received during his visit and a number of miraculous occurrences were reported. He also performed ceremonies for the imperial family. The emperor presented him with 700 measures of silver objects and bestowed the title of 'Precious Religious King, Great Loving One of the West, Mighty Buddha of Peace'.<ref>Brown, 34.</ref> A khatvanga in the British Museum was one of the objects given to the Karmapa by the Yongle Emperor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/20263001|title = Use this image 20263001 | British Museum}}</ref>
Aside from the religious matter, the Yongle Emperor wished to establish an alliance with the Karmapa similar to the one the 13th- and 14th-century [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] khans had established with the [[Sakyapa]].<ref>Sperling, 283–284.</ref> He apparently offered to send armies to unify Tibet under the Karmapa but Deshin Shekpa demurred, as parts of Tibet were still firmly controlled by partisans of the former Yuan dynasty.<ref>Brown, 33–34.</ref>
Deshin Shekpa left Nanjing on 17 May 1408.<ref>Sperling, 284.</ref> In 1410, he returned to [[Tsurphu Monastery|Tsurphu]] where he had his monastery rebuilt following severe damage from an earthquake. After the Karmapa's visit, Yongle styled himself a [[chakravartin|Buddhist sage ruler]]. A large amount of Tibetan Buddhist art was created in imperial workshops to demonstrate his authority and right to govern.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1352/rubin-museums-faith-and-empire-tibetan-buddhist-ar/ | title = Rubin Museum's Faith and Empire: Tibetan Buddhist Art | access-date = September 27, 2023}}</ref>
===Selecting an heir===
When it was time for him to choose an heir, the Yongle Emperor wanted to choose his second son, [[Zhu Gaoxu]], Prince of Han. Zhu Gaoxu had an athletic-warrior personality which contrasted sharply with his elder brother's intellectual and humanitarian nature. Despite much counsel from his advisers, the Yongle Emperor chose his older son, Zhu Gaozhi (the future [[Hongxi Emperor]]), as his heir apparent mainly due to advice from [[Xie Jin (mandarin)|Xie Jin]]. As a result, Zhu Gaoxu became infuriated and refused to give up jockeying for his father's favour and refusing to move to [[Yunnan|Yunnan Province]], where his princedom was located. He even went so far as to undermine Xie Jin's counsel and eventually killed him.
===National economy and construction projects===
After the Yongle Emperor's overthrow of the [[Jianwen Emperor]], China's countryside was devastated. The fragile new economy had to deal with low production and depopulation. The Yongle Emperor laid out a long and extensive plan to strengthen and stabilise the new economy, but first he had to silence dissension. He created an elaborate system of censors to remove corrupt officials from office that spread such rumors. The emperor dispatched some of his most trusted officers to reveal or destroy secret societies, bandits, and loyalists to his other relatives. To strengthen the economy, he fought population decline, using the most he could from the existing labour force, and maximising textile and agricultural production.
The Yongle Emperor also worked to reclaim production rich regions such as the Lower [[Yangtze River Delta|Yangtze Delta]] and called for a massive reconstruction of the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]]. During his reign, the Grand Canal was almost completely rebuilt and was eventually moving imported goods from all over the world. The Yongle Emperor's short-term goal was to revitalise northern urban centres, especially his new capital at Beijing. Before the Grand Canal was rebuilt, grain was transferred to Beijing in two ways; one route was simply via the [[East China Sea]], from the port of [[Liujiagang]] (near [[Suzhou]]); the other was a far more laborious process of transferring the grain from large to small shallow barges (after passing the [[Huai River]] and having to cross southwestern [[Shandong]]), then transferred back to large river barges on the [[Yellow River]] before finally reaching Beijing.<ref name="brook 46 47">Brook, 46–47.</ref> With the necessary tribute [[grain trade|grain shipments]] of four million ''shi'' (one ''shi'' equal to 107 [[liter]]s) to the north each year, both processes became incredibly inefficient.<ref name="brook 46 47"/> It was a magistrate of [[Jining, Shandong]] who sent a memorandum to the Yongle Emperor protesting the current method of grain shipment, a request that the emperor ultimately granted.<ref>Brook, 47.</ref>
The Yongle Emperor ambitiously planned to move his capital to Beijing. According to a popular legend, the capital was moved when the emperor's advisers brought the emperor to the hills surrounding Nanjing and pointed out the emperor's palace showing the vulnerability of the palace to artillery attack.
The emperor planned to build a massive network of structures in Beijing in which government offices, officials, and the imperial family resided. After a painfully long construction time (1407–1420), the [[Forbidden City]] was finally completed and became the imperial capital for the next 500 years.
The Yongle Emperor finalised the architectural ensemble of his father's [[Ming Xiaoling|Xiaoling Mausoleum]] in Nanjing by erecting a monumental "Square Pavilion" (Sifangcheng) with an eight-metre-tall [[bixi (tortoise)|tortoise-borne]] stele, extolling the merits and virtues of the Hongwu Emperor. In fact, the Yongle Emperor's original idea for the memorial was to erect an unprecedented stele 73 metres tall. However, due to the impossibility of moving or erecting the giant parts of that monuments, they have been left unfinished in [[Yangshan Quarry]], where they remain to this day.<ref>{{citation|title=
Even though the Hongwu Emperor may have meant for his descendants to be buried near his own Xiaoling Mausoleum (this was how the Hongwu Emperor's heir apparent, [[Zhu Biao]] was buried), the Yongle Emperor's relocation of the capital to Beijing necessitated the creation of a new imperial burial ground. On the advice of [[fengshui]] experts, the Yongle Emperor chose a site north of Beijing, where he and his successors were to be buried. Over the next two centuries, thirteen emperors in total were laid to rest in the [[Ming tombs]].
===Religion and philosophy===
The Yongle Emperor was a Chinese traditionalist. He promoted [[Confucianism]], retained traditional ritual ceremonies, and respected the classical culture, overhauled numerous [[Taoist temple|Taoist temples and monasteries]] in [[Mount Wudang]] dedicated to [[Xuanwu (god)|Zhenwu Dadi]]. During his reign, many Buddhist and Taoist temples were built. The Yongle Emperor sought to eradicate old Yuan influence from China; the use of popular [[Mongolian names|Mongol names]], habits, language, and clothing were forbidden.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}
{{anchor|Islam|Muslims}}
The Yongle Emperor sponsored a mosque each in [[Nanjing]] and [[Xi'an]]; both survive. Repairs to mosques were encouraged and conversion to other uses was forbidden.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UzrAAAAMAAJ&q=edict+1407|title=China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4|year=2000|publisher=Art Text (HK) Ltd|page=29|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=yongle+1407+edict+&pg=PA269|title=Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic|author=Dru C. Gladney|year=1996|publisher=Harvard Univ Asia Center|page=269|isbn=0-674-59497-5|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>
He commissioned [[Grand Secretary]] [[Xie Jin (mandarin)|Xie Jin]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} to write the ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]'', a compilation of Chinese civilization. It was completed in 1408<ref name="eb">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Yongle dadian (Chinese encyclopaedia)|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/654973/Yongle-dadian|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=9 May 2012|author=Kathleen Kuiper|location=Chicago, Illinois|date= 2006}} ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.]]''</ref> and was the world's largest general encyclopedia until being surpassed by [[Wikipedia]] in late 2007.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Encyclopedias and Dictionaries|edition=15th |year=2007 |volume=18|pages=257–286}}</ref>
===Military campaigns===
{{More citations needed|date=April 2009}}
====Wars against the Mongols====
{{main|Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols}}
Mongol invaders were still causing many problems for the Ming Empire. The Yongle Emperor prepared to eliminate this threat. He mounted [[Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols|five military expeditions into the Mongol steppes]] and crushed the remnants of the [[Yuan dynasty]] that had fled north after being defeated by the Hongwu Emperor. He repaired the northern defences and forged buffer alliances to keep the Mongols at bay in order to build an army. His strategy was to force the Mongols into economic dependence on the Chinese and to launch periodic initiatives into Mongolia to cripple their offensive power. He attempted to compel Mongolia to become a Chinese tributary, with all the tribes submitting and proclaiming themselves vassals of the Ming Empire, and wanted to contain and isolate the Mongols. Through fighting, the Yongle Emperor learned to appreciate the importance of cavalry in battle and eventually began spending much of his resources to keep horses in good supply. The emperor spent his entire life fighting the Mongols. Failures and successes came and went, but after the emperor's second personal campaign against the Mongols, the Ming Empire was at peace for over seven years.
====Conquest of Vietnam====
{{main|Ming–Hồ War|Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam}}
[[File:Chine Ming - provinces Yongle-es.svg|thumb|[[Jiaozhi]] (northern Vietnam) when it was under Ming occupation]]
[[Vietnam]] was a significant source of difficulties during the Yongle Emperor's reign. In 1406, the emperor responded to several formal petitions from a [[Trần Thiêm Bình|pretender]] claiming to be a member of the [[Trần dynasty]], however on arrival to Vietnam, both the pretender and the accompanying Chinese ambassador were ambushed and killed. In response to this insult, the Yongle Emperor sent two armies led by [[Zhang Fu]] and [[Mu Sheng]] [[Ming–Hồ War|to conquer Vietnam]]. As the last remnants of the Trần royal family were all executed by the Ming including [[Giản Định Đế|Trần Ngỗi]],<ref name=Maspero>Maspero, G., 2002, The Champa Kingdom, Bangkok: White Lotus Co., Ltd., {{ISBN|9747534991}}</ref>{{rp|112–113}} Vietnam was integrated as a province of China, just as it had been up until 939. With the Hồ dynasty defeated in 1407, the Chinese began a serious and sustained effort to [[sinicise]] the population. The Yongle Emperor issued an order to Ming soldiers in Annam to burn all books except Buddhist and Taoist texts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ji |first=Yun |title=
===Diplomatic missions and exploration of the world===
{{main|Treasure voyages}}
[[File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|thumb|200px|An African [[giraffe]], originally from [[Malindi]], being presented to the Yongle Emperor by the [[Bengal]]i ruler in 1414, and taken to be an auspicious ''[[qilin]]''.<ref name=duy>{{Citation|first=J.J.L. |last=Duyvendak |jstor=4527170 |title=The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century|journal=T'oung Pao |series=Second Series| volume= 34|issue= 5|year=1939|page=402}}</ref>]]
As part of his desire to expand Chinese influence throughout the known world, the Yongle Emperor sponsored the massive and long term [[treasure voyages]] led by admiral [[Zheng He]]. While Chinese ships continued travelling to Japan, [[Ryukyu]], and many locations in Southeast Asia before and after the Yongle Emperor's reign, Zheng He's expeditions were China's only major sea-going explorations of the world (although the Chinese may have been sailing to [[Arabia]], [[East Africa]], and [[Egypt]] since the [[Tang dynasty]]<ref>Based on descriptions of the coast from 860. {{citation|author1=Ronan, Colin|author2=Needham, Joseph|title=The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China|page=133|year=1986|volume=3}}</ref> or earlier). The first expedition was launched in 1405 (18 years before [[Henry the Navigator]] began Portugal's [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]]). The expeditions were under the command of Zheng He and his associates ([[Wang Jinghong]], [[Hong Bao]], etc.). Seven expeditions were launched between 1405 and 1433, reaching major trade centres of Asia (as far as [[Tondeswaram temple|Tenavarai]] ([[Dondra Head]]), [[Strait of Hormuz|Hormuz]] and [[Aden]]) and northeastern Africa ([[Malindi]]). [[Chinese treasure ship|Some of the ships]] used were apparently the largest sail-powered wooden ships in human history.<ref>''National Geographic'', May 2004</ref>
The Chinese expeditions were a remarkable technical and logistical achievement. The Yongle Emperor's successors, the [[Hongxi Emperor|Hongxi]] and [[Xuande Emperor|Xuande]] Emperors, felt that the costly expeditions were harmful to the Ming Empire. The Hongxi Emperor ended further expeditions and the descendants of the Xuande Emperor suppressed much of the information about Zheng He's treasure voyages.
On 30 January 1406, the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuans]] castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to serve in the Ming imperial palace. The emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wade |first=Geoff |date=1 July 2007 |title= Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s–1580s |ssrn= 1317152 |ssrn-access=free |publisher= Asia Research Institute National University of Singapore |series= Working Paper Series |issue= 93 |page= 75 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1317152 |s2cid=130285448 |doi-access=}}</ref>
In 1411, a smaller fleet, built in [[Jilin City|Jilin]] and commanded by another eunuch [[Yishiha]], who was a [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]], sailed down the [[Sungari]] and [[Amur River]]s. The expedition established a [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]] in the region, headquartered at the place the Chinese called Telin (
After the death of [[Timur]], who intended to invade China, relations between the Ming Empire and [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shakhrukh]]'s state in Persia and Transoxania state considerably improved, and the states exchanged large official delegations on a number of occasions. Both the Ming Empire's envoy to [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]], [[Chen Cheng (Ming dynasty)|Chen Cheng]], and his counterpart, [[Ghiyasu'd-Din Naqqah]], recorded detailed accounts of their visits to each other's states.
One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] princess, which resulted in many of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin, notably [[Yishiha]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGAbAAAAYAAJ|title=Chinese eunuchs: the structure of intimate politics|author=Taisuke Mitamura|year=1970|publisher=C.E. Tuttle Co.|page=54|isbn=978-0804806534|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=1996|publisher=SUNY Press|quote=Yishiha belonged to the Haixi tribe of the Jurchen race. The Ming shi provides no background information on this Manchurian castrato except that Yishiha worked under two powerful early Ming eunuchs, Wang Zhen, and Cao Jixiang. It is also likely that Yishiha gained prominence by enduring the hard knocks of court politics and serving imperial concubines of Manchurian origin, as the Yongle Emperor kept Jurchen women in his harem. At any rate, in the spring of 1411, the Yongle Emperor commissioned Yishiha to vie for the heart and soul of the peoples in Northern Manchuria and Eastern Siberia. Yishiha led a party of more than 1,000 officers and soldiers who boarded twenty-five ships and sailed along the Amur River for several days before reaching the Nuerkan Command post. Nuerkan was located on the east bank of the Amur River, approximately 300 li from the river's entrance and 250 li form the present-day Russian town of Nikolayevka. Yishiha's immediate assignment was to confer titles on tribal chiefs, giving them seals and uniforms. He also actively sought new recruits to fill out the official ranks for the Regional Commission|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA129|isbn=0-7914-2687-4|page=129|title=The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty|edition=illustrated|author=Shih-shan Henry Tsai|access-date=2 March 2012}}</ref>
Due to Ming rule in Manchuria, Chinese cultural and religious influence such as [[Chinese New Year]], the "Chinese god", Chinese motifs like the dragon, spirals, scrolls, and material goods like agriculture, husbandry, heating, iron cooking pots, silk, and cotton spread among the Amur natives like the [[Udeghe people|Udeghe]]s, [[Ulch people|Ulchi]]s, and [[Nanai people|Nanai]]s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&dq=chinese+god+motifs+cotton+iron+silk&pg=PA214|last=Forsyth|first=James|edition=illustrated, reprint, revised|isbn=0521477719|date=1994|title=A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990|page=214|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
After [[Manchuria under Yuan rule]], Ainu and Nivkh of Sakhalin became tributaries to the [[Ming dynasty]] of China after [[Manchuria under Ming rule|Manchuria came under Ming rule]] as part of the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]]. Boluohe, Nanghar and Wuliehe were Yuan posts set up to receive tribute from the Ainu after their war with the Yuan ended in 1308. Ming Chinese outposts in Sakhalin and the Amur river area received animal skin tribute from [[Ainu people|Ainu]] on Sakhalin, [[Uilta]] and Nivkh in the 15th century after the [[Tyr, Russia|Tyr]] based [[Yongning Temple]] was set up along with the Nurkan (Nurgan) outposts by the Yongle emperor in 1409. The Ming also held the post at Wuliehe and received [[marten]] pelt fur tribute from the assistant commander Alige in 1431 from Sakhalin after the Ming assigned titles like weizhenfu (official charged with subjugation), zhihui qianshi (assistance commander), zhihui tongzhi (vice commander) and Zhihuishi (commander) from Sakhalin indigenous headmen. The Ming received tribute from the headmen Alingge, Tuolingha, Sanchiha and Zhaluha in 1437. The position of headman among Sakhalin indigenous peoples was inherited paternally from father to son and the sons came with their fathers to Wuliehe. Ming officials gave silk uniforms with the appropriate rank to the Sakhalin Ainu, Uilta and Nivkh after they gave tribute. The [[Primorsky Krai|Maritime Province]] region had the Ming "system for subjugated peoples' implementers in it for the Sakhalin indigenous peoples. Sakhalin received iron tools from mainland Asia through this trade as Tungus groups joined in from 1456–1487. Local indigenous hierarchies had Ming Chinese given political offices integrated with them. The Ming system on Sakhalin was imitated by the Qing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Walker |first=Brett L. |author-link= |date= 2001 |title= The Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and Culture in Japanese Expansion,1590–1800|series=Nippon Foundation|edition=illustrated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8FO9evlIyoC&dq=mongol+invasion+ainu&pg=PA132=3 |location= |publisher=University of California Press |pages=133, 134 |isbn=0520227360}}</ref> [[Nivkh people|Nivkh]] women in [[Sakhalin]] married Han Chinese Ming officials when the Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur river region.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FmW8MwEACAAJ&q=%E2%80%98Natives+of+the+Lower+Reaches+of+the+Amur+River%E2%80%99 Sei Wada], ‘[https://books.google.com/books?id=mWipQwAACAAJ&q=%E2%80%98Natives+of+the+Lower+Reaches+of+the+Amur+River%E2%80%99 The Natives of the Lower reaches of the Amur as Represented in Chinese Records]’, Memoirs of the Research Department of Toyo Bunko, no. 10, 1938, pp. 40‒102, (Shina no kisai ni arawaretaru Kokuryuko karyuiki no dojin
The Yongle Emperor instituted a Ming governor on Luzon during [[Zheng He]]'s [[Treasure voyages|voyages]] and appointed Ko-ch'a-lao (
States in Luzon,<ref>{{cite book|title=Southeast Asian Archaeology: Wilhelm G. Solheim II Festschrift|editor1-first=Victor|editor1-last=Paz|editor2-first=Wilhelm G.|editor2-last=Solheim, II|edition=illustrated|year=2004|publisher=University of the Philippines Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fj1mAAAAMAAJ&q=Yongle+province+luzon|page=476|isbn=9715424511|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook|first=Damon L.|last=Woods|edition=illustrated|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&q=governor+chinese+luzon+mindanao&pg=PT41|page=16|isbn=1851096752|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> Sulu (under [[List of sultans of Sulu|King]] [[Paduka Pahala]]),<ref name="Villegas 1983 107"/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History|first=Robert|last=Finlay|volume=11 of California World History Library |edition=illustrated|year=2010|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uHWIKuAYbK8C&q=Yongle+luzon&pg=PA226|page=226|isbn=978-0520945388|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> Sumatra,<ref>{{cite book|title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese|editor1-first=Anthony|editor1-last=Reid|editor2-first=Kristine|editor2-last=Alilunas-Rodgers|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1996|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFIGVqZ9ZKsC&q=Yongle+luzon&pg=PA26|page=26|isbn=0824824466|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> and Brunei<ref>{{cite book|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: Expansion and crisis, Volume 2|first=Anthony|last=Reid|volume=2 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680|edition=illustrated|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxgHExnla4MC&q=Yongle+luzon&pg=PA206|page=206|isbn=0300054122|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th–15th centuries|first=André|last=Wink|volume=3 of Al-Hind Series|year=2004|publisher=Brill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C&q=Yongle+luzon&pg=PA238|page=238|isbn=9004135618|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> all established diplomatic relations with the Ming Empire and exchanged envoys and sent tribute to the Yongle Emperor.
The Yongle Emperor exchanged ambassadors with [[Shahrukh Mirza]], sending [[Chen Cheng (Ming dynasty)|Chen Cheng]] to Samarkand and Herat, and Shahrukh sent [[Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh]] to Beijing.
==Death==
[[File:Mingchangling201910.jpg|thumb|250px|Changling (
On 1 April 1424, the Yongle Emperor launched a large campaign into the [[Gobi Desert]] to chase an army of fleeing [[Oirats]]. Frustrated at his inability to catch up with his swift opponents, the Yongle Emperor fell into a deep depression and then into illness, possibly owing to a series of minor strokes.{{citation needed|date=June 2009}} On 12 August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. He was entombed in Changling ({{lang|zh|
==Legacy==
[[File:Nanking Erlach.jpg|thumb|The Porcelain Tower]]
[[File:Yongle Bell 03.jpg|thumb|The Yongle Bell, cast in the 1420s]]
The Yongle Emperor is generally regarded to have had a lifelong pursuit of glory, power, and wealth. He respected and worked hard to preserve [[Culture of China|Chinese culture]] by designing monuments such as the [[Porcelain Tower of Nanjing]], while patronizing Mongol and Tibetan cultures.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=David |title=Ming China and its Allies: Imperial Rule in Eurasia |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108489225 |pages=23, 51–53, 203}}</ref> He deeply admired and wished to save his father's accomplishments{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} and spent a lot of time proving his claim to the throne. His reign was a mixed blessing for the Chinese populace. The Yongle Emperor's economic, educational, and military reforms provided unprecedented benefits for the people{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}}, but his [[despotism|despotic]] style of government set up a spy agency. Despite these negatives, the Yongle Emperor is considered an architect and keeper of Chinese culture, history, and statecraft and an influential ruler in Chinese history.
He is remembered very much for his cruelty, just like his father. He killed most of the Jianwen Emperor's palace servants, tortured many of his nephew's loyalists to death, killed or by other means badly treated their relatives.<ref>[[Bo Yang]], ''
==Family==
===Consorts and issue===
* [[Empress Xu (Ming dynasty)|Empress Renxiaowen]], of the Xu clan (1362–1407), personal name Yihua
** [[Princess Yong'an]] (1377–1417), personal name Yuying, first daughter
*** Married Yuan Rong, Marquis of Guangping ({{lang|zh|
** Zhu Gaochi, the [[Hongxi Emperor]] (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425), first son
** [[Princess Yongping]] (1379 – 22 April 1444), personal name Yuegui, second daughter
*** Married Li Rang, Marquis of Fuyang ({{lang|zh|
** [[Zhu Gaoxu]], [[Prince of Han of Ming dynasty|Prince of Han]] (30 December 1380 – 6 October 1426), second son
** [[Zhu Gaosui]], [[Prince of Zhao of Ming dynasty|Prince Jian of Zhao]] (19 January 1383 – 5 October 1431), third son
** Princess Ancheng ({{lang|zh|
*** Married Song Hu, Marquis of Xining ({{lang|zh|
** Princess Xianning ({{lang|zh|咸寧
*** Married Song Ying, Marquis of Xining ({{lang|zh|
* [[Noble Consort Zhaoxian]], of the Wang clan (d. 1420)
* Noble Consort Zhaoyi, of the Zhang clan ({{lang|zh|
* [[Consort Gwon (Ming dynasty)|Consort Gongxianxian]], of the Korean [[Gwon|Andong Gwon]] clan (1391–1410)
* [[Consort Yu (Yongle)|Consort Zhongjingzhaoshunxian]], of the Yu clan (d. 1421)
* Consort Kangmuyigonghui, of the Wu clan ({{lang|zh|
** [[Zhu Gaoxi]] (18 January 1392 – January/February 1392), fourth son
* Consort Gongshunrongmuli, of the Chen clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Duanjinggonghuishu, of the Yang clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Gongherongshunxian, of the Wang clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Zhaosujinghuixian, of the Wang clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Zhaohuigongyishun, of the Wang clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Huimuzhaojingshun, of the Qian clan ({{lang|zh|
* [[Consort Han (Yongle)|Consort Kanghuizhuangshuli]], of the [[Cheongju Han clan|Korean Cheongju Han clan]] (d. 12 August 1424)
* Consort Kangjingzhuanghehui, of the Korean Choi clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Anshunhui, of the Long clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Zhaoshunde, of the Liu clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Kangyishun, of the Li clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Huimushun, of the Guo clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Zhenjingshun, of the Zhang clan ({{lang|zh|
* Consort Shun, of the Korean Im clan ({{lang|zh|
* [[Consort Hwang (Yongle)|Consort Hwang]], of the Korean Hwang clan (d. 1421)
* [[Consort Yi (Ming dynasty)|Lady of Bright Deportment]], of the Korean Yi clan (1392–1421)
* [[Consort Yeo|Lady of Handsome Fairness]], of the Korean Yeo clan (1393–1413)
* Beauty Gongrong, of the Wang clan ({{lang|zh|
* Beauty Jinghui, of the Lu clan ({{lang|zh|
* Beauty Zhuanghui ({{lang|zh|
* Unknown
** Princess Changning ({{lang|zh|
*** Married Mu Xin, Marquis of Xiping ({{lang|zh|
==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel | align = center
| boxstyle_1 = background-color: #fcc;
| boxstyle_2 = background-color: #fb9;
| boxstyle_3 = background-color: #ffc;
| boxstyle_4 = background-color: #bfc;
| 1 = Yongle Emperor (1360–1424)
| 2 = [[Hongwu Emperor]] (1328–1398)
| 3 = [[Empress Ma (Hongwu)|Empress Xiaocigao]] (1332–1382)
| 4 = Zhu Shizhen (1281–1344)
| 5 = Empress Chun (1286–1344)
| 6 = Lord Ma
| 7 = Lady Zheng
| 8 = Zhu Chuyi
| 9 = Empress Yu
| 10 = Lord Chen (1235–1334)
}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Biography|China|History}}
* [[Chinese emperors family tree (late)]]
* [[Ming dynasty in Inner Asia]]
* [[Yongle Tongbao]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
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*{{cite book|title=The Researcher, Volume 2, Issue 2 |others=Contributors University of Pangasinan, Dagupan Colleges|year=1970|publisher=Dagupan Colleges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5c3_QiLW50EC|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review, Volumes 24–25 |others=Contributor University of the Philippines. College of Liberal Arts|year=1959|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLjAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews, Volume 24, Issues 1–2 |others=Contributors Philippine Academy of Social Sciences, Manila, University of the Philippines. College of Liberal Arts|year=1959|publisher=College of Liberal Arts, University of the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gi-2AAAAIAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book |title=Studies in Public Administration, Issue 4 |others=Contributor University of the Philippines. Institute of Public Administration |year=1957|publisher=Institute of Public Administration, University of the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0suOAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Proceedings [of The] Second Biennial Conference, Held at Taiwan Provincial Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. Republic of China, October 6–9, 1962 |year=1963|publisher=Tʻai-pei|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAkEAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Yearbook |year=1965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oTUkAQAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Philippine Almanac & Handbook of Facts |year=1977|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWzjAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Compte rendu|publisher=[[International Institute of Differing Civilizations]] |others=Contributor International Colonial Institute|year=1961|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlUdAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{Commons and category|
* Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry, ''Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle'', University of Washington Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-295-98124-5}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=aU5hBMxNgWQC Partial text] on Google Books.
* Louise Levathes, ''When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433'', Oxford University Press, 1997, trade paperback, {{ISBN|0-19-511207-5}}
* [http://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=279435 《
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{{s-hou|[[House of Zhu]]|2 May|1360|12 August|1424}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of vassals prince peerages of Ming dynasty|Prince of Yan]]|years=1370–1402}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of emperors of the Ming dynasty|Emperor of the Ming dynasty]]<br />[[Emperor of China]]|years=1402–1424}}
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{{Ming emperors}}
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[[Category:1360 births]]
[[Category:1424 deaths]]
[[Category:Ming dynasty emperors]]
[[Category:15th-century Chinese monarchs]]
[[Category:Ming dynasty Buddhists]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist monarchs]]
[[Category:Ming dynasty generals]]
[[Category:Chinese encyclopedists]]
[[Category:Generals from Jiangsu]]
[[Category:Yongle Emperor| ]]
[[Category:Usurpers]]
[[Category:People from Nanjing]]
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