Canada: Difference between revisions

| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/income-inequality/indicator/english_459aa7f1-en |title=Income inequality |publisher=OECD |doi=10.1787/459aa7f1-en |access-date=2024-04-16 |archive-date=April 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417174703/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/income-inequality/indicator/english_459aa7f1-en |url-status=live }}</ref>

| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2023/24 |language=en |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |date=13 March 2024 |access-date=13 March 2024 |archive-date=March 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Upon [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation in 1867]], ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the [[London Conference of 1866|London Conference]] and the word ''[[dominion]]'' was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Toole |first=Roger |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGHgLlxfh7wC&pg=PA137 |title=Holy Nations and Global Identities: Civil Religion, Nationalism, and Globalisation |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17828-1 |editor-last=Hvithamar |editor-first=Annika |page=137 |chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context |editor-last2=Warburg |editor-first2=Margit |editor-last3=Jacobsen |editor-first3=Brian Arly |access-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404083933/https://books.google.com/books?id=OGHgLlxfh7wC&pg=PA137 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the 1950s, the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morra |first=Irene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b9OLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |title=The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-85772-867-8 |page=49 |access-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-date=April 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415142725/https://books.google.com/books?id=b9OLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ''[[Canada Act 1982]]'', which brought the [[Constitution of Canada]] fully under Canadian control, referred only to ''Canada''. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to [[Canada Day]].<ref name="buckner">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA37 |title=Canada and the British Empire |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1 |editor-last=Buckner |editor-first=Philip |pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125 |access-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-date=May 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522050258/https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}</ref> The term ''Dominion'' was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the [[Canada in World War II|Second World War]] the term ''federal'' had replaced ''dominion''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA114 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |last2=Smith |first2=David |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=114}}</ref>

The [[Settlement of the Americas|first inhabitants of North America]] are generally hypothesized to have migrated from [[Siberia]] by way of the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]] and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Thomas D. |title=The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory |publisher=Basic Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7867-2543-4 |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |title=World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-34244-1 |page=124 |access-date=July 20, 2018 |archive-date=January 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120114912/https://books.google.com/books?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Paleo-Indian]] archeological sites at [[Old Crow Flats]] and [[Bluefish Caves]] are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rawat |first=Rajiv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |title=Circumpolar Health Atlas |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4426-4456-4 |page=58}}</ref> The [[Technological and industrial history of Canada#The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)|characteristics of Indigenous societies]] included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hayes |first=Derek |title=Canada: An Illustrated History |publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55365-259-5 |pages=7, 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Macklem |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |title=Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8020-4195-1 |page=170}}</ref> Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sonneborn |first=Liz |title=Chronology of American Indian History |date=January 2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-6770-1 |pages=2–12}}</ref> [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada]] include the [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]], [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people in Canada|Métis]],<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012">{{Cite book |last1=Graber |first1=Christoph Beat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |title=International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues |last2=Kuprecht |first2=Karolina |last3=Lai |first3=Jessica C. |author-link3=Jessica Lai |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-85793-831-2 |page=366}}</ref> the last being of [[mixed-blood|mixed descent]] who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012" />[[File:Indigenous population by census division.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|A map of Canada showing the percent of [[Population of Canada#Indigenous peoples|self-reported indigenous identity]] (First Nations, Inuit, Métis) by census division, according to the [[2021 Canadian census]]<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022 u867">{{cite web |title=Census Program Data Viewer dashboard |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 9, 2022 |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/cpdv-vdpr/index-eng.cfm |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=January 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125123112/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/cpdv-vdpr/index-eng.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous population]] at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying">{{Cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Donna M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |title=Dying and Death in Canada |last2=Northcott |first2=Herbert C |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-873-4 |pages=25–27}}</ref> and two million,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thornton |first=Russell |title=A population history of North America |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-49666-7 |editor-last=Haines |editor-first=Michael R |pages=13, 380 |chapter=Population history of Native North Americans |editor-last2=Steckel |editor-first2=Richard Hall}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=C. Vivian |title=Indians in Contemporary Society |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-16-080388-8 |editor-last=Bailey |editor-first=Garrick Alan |series=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=2 |page=285 |chapter=Native Populations of Canada |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285}}</ref> As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent and several First Nations, such as the [[Beothuk]], disappeared.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Ingeborg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |title=A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7735-1774-5 |page=442 |access-date=September 7, 2017 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173816/https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |url-status=live }}</ref> The decline is attributed to several causes, including the [[Columbian exchange|transfer of European diseases]], such as [[influenza]], [[measles]], and [[smallpox]], to which they had no natural immunity,<ref name="dying" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=True Peters |first=Stephanie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |title=Smallpox in the New World |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1 |page=39}}</ref> conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Laidlaw |first1=Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |title=Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World |last2=Lester |first2=Alan |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-137-45236-8 |page=150 |access-date=September 7, 2017 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Arthur J. |url=https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 |title=I Have Lived Here Since The World Began |publisher=Key Porter Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55263-633-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 244]}}</ref>

Although not without conflict, [[European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173811/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |url-status=live }}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois|coureurs des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in their explorations of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34 |access-date=May 15, 2017 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |url-status=live }}</ref> These early European interactions with First Nations would change from [[Peace and Friendship Treaties|friendship and peace treaties]] to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.<ref name="Williams 2021 p. 51">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=L. |title=Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-47233-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |page=51 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140054/https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Turner 2020 p. 14">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=N.J. |title=Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-2280-0317-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |page=14 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140056/https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |publisher=UBC Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28}}</ref> These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with [[Canadian Indian residential school system|forced integration through state-funded boarding schools]],<ref name="Truth">{{cite book |author=Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada |title=Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1, Origins to 1939: The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Volume I |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7gWQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |date=January 1, 2016 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-9818-8 |pages=3–7 |access-date=July 17, 2021 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231419/https://books.google.com/books?id=7gWQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Indian hospital|health-care segregation]],<ref name="Lux 2016 p. 7">{{cite book |last=Lux |first=M.K. |title=Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s |publisher=University of Toronto Press |series=G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4426-1386-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9gQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |page=7 |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=May 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524024352/https://books.google.com/books?id=o9gQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[High Arctic relocation|displacement]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kirmayer |first1=Laurence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |last2=Guthrie |first2=Gail Valaskakis |publisher=UBC Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2 |page=9}}</ref> A period of redress began with the formation of the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada]] by the [[Government of Canada]] in 2008.<ref name="trc">{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action |url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615202024/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |archive-date=June 15, 2015 |publisher=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |page=5}}</ref> This included recognition of past [[Genocide of indigenous peoples#Canada|cultural genocide]],<ref name="TRCSummary">{{cite web |title=Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada |url=https://nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf |website=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |publisher=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada |access-date=January 6, 2019 |date=May 31, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706170855/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf |archive-date=July 6, 2016}}</ref> [[Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement|settlement agreements]],<ref name="trc" /> and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of [[missing and murdered Indigenous women]].<ref name="Ministère de la Justice 2017">{{cite web |title=Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples |website=Ministère de la Justice |date=July 14, 2017 |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html |archive-date=June 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610052703/https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Nouvelle-France map-en.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|Map of territorial claims in [[North America]] by 1750. Possessions of [[British America]] (pink), [[New France]] (blue), and [[New Spain]] (orange); California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated.<ref name="Chapman p.">{{cite AV media |last=Chapman |first=Frederick T. |title=European Claims in North America in 1750 |jstor=community.15128627 |url=https://jstor.org/stable/community.15128627 |access-date=July 23, 2023 |archive-date=July 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723152338/https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.15128627 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was [[Vikings|Norse]] explorer [[Leif Erikson]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Wallace |first=Birgitta |date=October 12, 2018 |title=Leif Eriksson |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413193628/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Johansen |first1=Bruce E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA727 |title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History |last2=Pritzker |first2=Barry M. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-818-7 |pages=727–728 |access-date=May 31, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231411/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA727 |url-status=live }}</ref> In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] on the northern tip of [[Newfoundland]].<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site |encyclopedia=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82 |year=2009 |pages=27, 82 |isbn=978-0-313-02189-3 |last2=Lightfoot |first2=Kent |last3=McManamon |first3=Francis |last4=Milner |first4=George |first1=Linda S. |last1=Cordell |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=April 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425150120/https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82 |url-status=live }}</ref> No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer [[John Cabot]] explored and claimed Canada's [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic coast]] in the name of [[Henry VII of England]].<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p19">{{Cite book |last1=Blake |first1=Raymond B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4kwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada |last2=Keshen |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Knowles |first3=Norman J. |last4=Messamore |first4=Barbara J. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4426-3553-1 |page=19 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231411/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4kwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] where, on July 24, he planted a {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on}} cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of [[Francis I of France|King Francis I]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cartier |first1=Jacques |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart |title=The Voyages of Jacques Cartier |last2=Biggar |first2=Henry Percival |last3=Cook |first3=Ramsay |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-8020-6000-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart/page/n79 26] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the [[Basques|Basque]] and [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese]] establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kerr |first=Donald Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itsTLSnw8qgC&pg=PA47 |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8020-2495-4 |page=47 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231413/https://books.google.com/books?id=itsTLSnw8qgC&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In general, early settlements during the [[Age of Discovery]] appear to have been [[Population of Canada#Ephemeral European settlements|short-lived]] due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0 |page=84}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wynn |first=Graeme |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA49 |title=Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-437-0 |page=49 |access-date=September 22, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231412/https://books.google.com/books?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA49 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1583, Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]], by the [[royal prerogative]] of Queen [[Elizabeth I]], founded [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John's, Newfoundland]], as the first North American [[English overseas possessions|English seasonal camp]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=George A |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209 |title=Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries |date=October 1, 2007 |publisher=[[Breakwater Books]] |isbn=978-1-55081-225-1 |page=209 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231412/https://books.google.com/books?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at [[Tadoussac]] along the Saint Lawrence.<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008" /> French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]] (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kelley |first1=Ninette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27 |title=The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy |last2=Trebilcock |first2=Michael J. |date=September 30, 2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7 |page=27}}</ref> Among the [[French colonization of the Americas|colonists]] of New France, ''[[French Canadians|Canadiens]]'' extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and [[Acadians]] settled the present-day [[The Maritimes|Maritimes]], while fur traders and [[Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery|Catholic missionaries]] explored the [[Great Lakes]], [[Hudson Bay]], and the [[Mississippi watershed]] to [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=LaMar |first=Howard Roberts |url=https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355 |title=The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-690-00008-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355 355] |author-link=Howard R. Lamar}}</ref> The [[Beaver Wars]] broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394 |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |last2=Arnold |first2=James |last3=Wiener |first3=Roberta |date=September 30, 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-697-8 |page=394}}</ref>

The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] established First Nation treaty rights, created the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] out of New France, and annexed [[Cape Breton Island]] to Nova Scotia.<ref name="buckner" /> St John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hicks |first=Bruce M |date=March 2010 |title=Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation |journal=[[British Journal of Canadian Studies]] |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=87–117 |doi=10.3828/bjcs.2010.5}}</ref> To avert conflict in [[Quebec]], the British Parliament passed the [[Quebec Act]] 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=John Castell |url=https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk |title=Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, its Material Progress and its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists |publisher=Linscott Publishing Company |year=1898 |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk/page/125 125]}}</ref> More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nellis |first=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331 |title=An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4426-0403-2 |page=331}}</ref> It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and [[Law of France|French civil law]] there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stuart |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fdx4AV1kgCsC&pg=PA101 |title=The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience |last2=Savage |first2=Allan M. |publisher=WestBow Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4497-2084-1 |pages=101–102 |access-date=November 24, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231412/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fdx4AV1kgCsC&pg=PA101#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the [[American Revolution]].<ref name="buckner" />

After the successful American War of Independence, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]] recognized the independence of the newly formed [[United States]] and set the terms of peace, ceding [[British North America]]n territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Leahy |first1=Todd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49 |title=Native American Movements |last2=Wilson |first2=Raymond |date=September 30, 2009 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-6892-2 |page=49}}</ref> The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of [[Loyalists]], the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. [[New Brunswick]] was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of [[Saint John, New Brunswick]], as Canada's first city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newman |first=Peter C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |title=Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada |date=2016 |publisher=Touchstone |isbn=978-1-4516-8615-9 |page=117 |author-link=Peter C. Newman |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231413/https://books.google.com/books?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the [[Constitutional Act 1791|Constitutional Act of 1791]] divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later [[Quebec]]) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later [[Ontario#Canada West (1841–1867)|Ontario]]), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McNairn |first=Jeffrey L |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24 |title=The capacity to judge |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-4360-3 |page=24}}</ref>

The Canadas were the main front in the [[War of 1812]] between the United States and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Trevor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVGDUAP3LjAC&pg=PA97 |title=Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach |last2=Friesen |first2=John W. |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-55130-371-0 |pages=97–99 |access-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-date=December 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201020935/https://books.google.com/books?id=EVGDUAP3LjAC&pg=PA97 |url-status=live }}</ref> Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Richard Colebrook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21 |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8020-3447-2 |page=21 |display-authors=etal |access-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-date=December 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201020925/https://books.google.com/books?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> New arrivals included refugees escaping the [[Great Irish Famine]] as well as [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]-speaking Scots displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=John A. |year=1936 |title=The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences |url=http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |url-status=live |pages=43–57 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707141525/http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |journal=CCHA Report}}</ref> Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.<ref name="dying" />

The desire for [[responsible government]] resulted in the abortive [[Rebellions of 1837]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Read |first=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99 |title=Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7735-8406-8 |page=99 |access-date=May 8, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231934/https://books.google.com/books?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Durham Report]] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name="buckner" /> The [[Act of Union 1840]] merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Romney |first=Paul |date=Spring 1989 |title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture |journal=Law and History Review |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=121–174 |doi=10.2307/743779 |jstor=743779 |s2cid=147047853}}</ref> The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. This paved the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)|British Columbia (1858)]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Evenden |first1=Leonard J |title=Geographical Snapshots of North America |last2=Turbeville |first2=Daniel E |publisher=Guilford Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-89862-030-6 |editor-last=Janelle |editor-first=Donald G |page=[https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52 52] |chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52}}</ref> The Anglo-Russian [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825)]] established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US [[Alaska Purchase]] of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Farr |first1=DML |last2=Block |first2=Niko |date=August 9, 2016 |title=The Alaska Boundary Dispute |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215092859/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute/ |archive-date=December 15, 2017 |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia}}</ref>

Following three constitutional conferences, the ''[[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act, 1867]]'' officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: [[Ontario]], Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dijkink |first1=Gertjan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226 |title=The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World |last2=Knippenberg |first2=Hans |publisher=[[Amsterdam University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-5629-188-4 |page=226 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232007/https://books.google.com/books?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bothwell |first=Robert |title=History of Canada Since 1867 |publisher=[[Michigan State University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-87013-399-2 |pages=31, 207–310}}</ref> Canada assumed control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] to form the [[Northwest Territories]], where the Métis' grievances ignited the [[Red River Rebellion]] and the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] in July 1870.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bumsted |first=JM |title=The Red River Rebellion |publisher=Watson & Dwyer |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-920486-23-8}}</ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which [[Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)|had been united]] in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/railway-history |title=Railway History in Canada |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=March 15, 2021 |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429164701/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/railway-history |url-status=live}}</ref> while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.<ref name="canatlas">{{cite web |title=Building a nation |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060303140806/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archive-date=March 3, 2006 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |website=Canadian Atlas |publisher=[[Canadian Geographic]]}}</ref> In 1898, during the [[Klondike Gold Rush]] in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] became provinces in 1905.<ref name="canatlas" /> Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denison |first=Merrill |title=The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story |date=1955 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited |page=8}}</ref>

To open [[Western Canada|the West]] and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), passed the ''[[Dominion Lands Act]]'' to regulate settlement and established the [[North-West Mounted Police]] to assert authority over the territory.<ref>{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Sir John A. Macdonald |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614221958/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Library and Archives Canada}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Cook |first=Terry |year=2000 |title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614222015/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |website=The Archivist |publisher=Library and Archives Canada}}</ref> This [[Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)#Expansion|period of westward expansion]] and [[National Policy|nation building]] resulted in the displacement of many [[Plains Indians|Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies]] to "[[Indian reserve]]s",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hele |first=Karl S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhLaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT248 |title=The Nature of Empires and the Empires of Nature: Indigenous Peoples and the Great Lakes Environment |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-55458-422-2 |page=248 |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231936/https://books.google.com/books?id=IhLaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT248#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> clearing the way for ethnic European [[block settlement]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gagnon |first=Erica |title=Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914 |url=https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-the-west-immigration-to-the-prairies-from-1867-to-1914 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |publisher=Canadian Museum of Immigration |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194403/https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-the-west-immigration-to-the-prairies-from-1867-to-1914 |url-status=live}}</ref> This caused the collapse of the [[History of bison conservation in Canada#Plains bison|Plains Bison in western Canada]] and the introduction of European [[Agriculture in Canada|cattle farms and wheat fields]] dominating the land.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Armitage |first1=Derek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z68_-biGhU8C&pg=PA183 |title=Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance |last2=Plummer |first2=Ryan |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-642-12194-4 |pages=183–184 |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231936/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z68_-biGhU8C&pg=PA183#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daschuk |first=James William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxwwZmSSOssC&pg=PA99 |title=Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life |publisher=University of Regina Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-88977-296-0 |pages=99–104 |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231938/https://books.google.com/books?id=mxwwZmSSOssC&pg=PA99#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=David John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLoeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 |title=From Treaties to Reserves: The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta, 1870–1905 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7735-4595-3 |pages=258–259 |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231939/https://books.google.com/books?id=hLoeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 |url-status=live }}</ref> During this time, Canada introduced the ''[[Indian Act]]'' extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Robert J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6zNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT186 |title=Canadian Government and Politics |last2=Jackson |first2=Doreen |last3=Koop |first3=Royce |publisher=Broadview Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4604-0696-0 |edition=7th |page=186 |access-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231959/https://books.google.com/books?id=u6zNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT186#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought [[Military history of Canada during World War I|Canada into the First World War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Brian Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9 |page=4}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]], which played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Desmond |title=A military history of Canada |publisher=[[McClelland & Stewart]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9 |edition=4th |pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258}}</ref> Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in the First World War, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Granatstein |first=J. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PA144 |title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8020-8696-9 |page=144}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with [[conscription]] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="McGonigal1962">{{Cite book |last=McGonigal |first=Richard Morton |title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1962 |chapter=Intro}}</ref> The ''Military Service Act'' brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.<ref name="McGonigal1962" /> In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and the ''[[Statute of Westminster, 1931]]'', affirmed Canada's independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63 |title=Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada |publisher=University of Calgary Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |page=63 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130231941/https://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a [[Crown colony]] ruled by a British governor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alfred Buckner |first=Phillip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135 |title=Canada and the British Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1 |pages=135–138 |access-date=June 22, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232457/https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> After two [[1948 Newfoundland referendums|referendums]], Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyer |first=J. Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119 |title=Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-4597-1884-5 |page=119}}</ref>

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular [[Quebec nationalism|nationalist]] movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Lance W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415 |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |last2=Clifton |first2=Rodney A. |last3=Ferguson |first3=Barry |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7735-7314-7 |page=415 |access-date=May 3, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232508/https://books.google.com/books?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The radical [[Front de libération du Québec]] (FLQ) ignited the [[October Crisis]] with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Munroe |first=HD |year=2009 |title=The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=288–305 |doi=10.1080/09546550902765623 |s2cid=143725040}}</ref> and the [[Quebec sovereignty movement|{{Not a typo|sovereigntist}}]] [[Parti Québécois]] was elected in 1976, organizing an [[1980 Quebec referendum|unsuccessful referendum]] on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] failed in 1990.<ref name="sorens">{{Cite journal |last=Sorens |first=J |date=December 2004 |title=Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy |journal=Electoral Studies |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=727–752 |doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003}}</ref> This led to the formation of the [[Bloc Québécois]] in Quebec and the invigoration of the [[Reform Party of Canada]] in the West.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leblanc |first=Daniel |date=August 13, 2010 |title=A brief history of the Bloc Québécois |work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901151147/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |archive-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Betz |first1=Hans-Georg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173 |title=The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies |last2=Immerfall |first2=Stefan |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21134-9 |page=173}}</ref> A [[1995 Quebec referendum|second referendum]] followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schmid |first=Carol L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112 |title=The Politics of Language: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-803150-5 |page=112}}</ref> In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] ruled [[Reference Re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession]] by a province would be unconstitutional, and the [[Clarity Act]] was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name="sorens" />

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of [[Air India Flight 182]] in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>{{cite web |title=Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182 |url=http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archive-date=June 22, 2008 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> the [[École Polytechnique massacre]] in 1989, a [[School shooting|university shooting]] targeting female students;<ref>{{cite web |last=Sourour |first=Teresa K |year=1991 |title=Report of Coroner's Investigation |url=http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228182645/http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2016 |access-date=March 8, 2017}}</ref> and the [[Oka Crisis]] of 1990,<ref>{{Cite news |year=2000 |title=The Oka Crisis |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |access-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804233458/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |archive-date=August 4, 2011}}</ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roach |first=Kent |url=https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 |title=September 11: consequences for Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7735-2584-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 15, 59–61, 194]}}</ref> Canada joined the [[Gulf War]] in 1990 and was active in [[List of Canadian peacekeeping missions|several peacekeeping missions]] in the 1990s, including operations in the [[Balkans]] during and after the [[Yugoslav Wars]],<ref name="Defence 2016 d710">{{cite web |last=Defence |first=National |title=Canadian Armed Forces operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina |website=Canada.ca |date=Jul 25, 2016 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/recently-completed/canadian-armed-forces-operations-bosnia-herzegovina.html |access-date=Mar 23, 2024 |archive-date=March 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323054357/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/recently-completed/canadian-armed-forces-operations-bosnia-herzegovina.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and in [[Somalia]], resulting in an incident that has been described as "[[Somalia affair|the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military]]".<ref name="canencsompck">{{cite web |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-peacekeepers-in-somalia |title=Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia |date=2 August 2019 |last=Foot |first=Richard |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |publisher=Historica Canada |access-date=26 February 2024 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312044307/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-peacekeepers-in-somalia |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cohen 2010 p. 160">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=S.A. |title=Israel's Armed Forces in Comparative Perspective |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=BESA studies in international security |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-135-16956-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 |access-date=2024-02-27 |page=160 |archive-date=2024-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304062940/https://books.google.com/books?id=0yiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 | url-status=live}}</ref> Canada sent [[Canada in the War in Afghanistan|troops to Afghanistan in 2001]], resulting in the largest amount of [[Canadian Forces casualties in Afghanistan|Canadian deaths]] for any single military mission since the [[Canada in the Korean War|Korean War]] in the early 1950s.<ref name="The Canadian Encyclopedia 2001 e998">{{cite web |title=Canada and the War in Afghanistan |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=Sep 11, 2001 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/international-campaign-against-terrorism-in-afghanistan |access-date=March 25, 2024 |quote=In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war. |archive-date=January 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129023800/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/international-campaign-against-terrorism-in-afghanistan |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Defence 2016 d621">{{cite web |last=Defence |first=National |title=Canada in Afghanistan (2001-2014) |website=Canada.ca |date=Aug 30, 2016 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/services/defence/caf/militaryhistory/wars-operations/afghanistan.html |access-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325072429/https://www.canada.ca/en/services/defence/caf/militaryhistory/wars-operations/afghanistan.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country]] in the world, after [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brescia |first1=Michael M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qzBUEWxpoC&pg=PA38 |title=North America: An Introduction |last2=Super |first2=John C. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8020-9675-3 |page=38 |access-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232457/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qzBUEWxpoC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> By land area alone, Canada [[List of countries and dependencies by area|ranks fourth]], due to having the world's largest area of [[List of lakes of Canada|fresh water lakes]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Battram |first=Robert A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1 |title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6 |page=1}}</ref> Stretching from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east, along the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north, and to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west, the country encompasses {{convert|9984670|km2|abbr=on}} of territory.<ref name="McColl2005">{{Cite book |last=McColl |first=R. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA135 |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |date=September 2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=135}}</ref> Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geography |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm |access-date=March 4, 2016 |publisher=Statistics Canada |archive-date=July 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719113340/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="International Boundary Commission" /> In addition to sharing the [[Canada–United States border|world's largest land border with the United States]]—spanning {{convert|8,891|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}{{efn|name="canadausa"|{{cvt|6,416|km}} via the [[contiguous 48 states]] and {{cvt|2,475|km}} via [[Alaska]]<ref name="International Boundary Commission">{{cite web |title=Boundary Facts |publisher=International Boundary Commission |url=https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520142611/https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |url-status=live}}</ref>}}—Canada shares a land border with [[Greenland]] (and hence the [[Kingdom of Denmark]]) to the northeast, on [[Hans Island]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chase |first1=Steven |title=Canada and Denmark reach settlement over disputed Arctic island, sources say |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |website=The Globe and Mail |date=June 10, 2022 |archive-date=June 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612214859/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and a [[maritime boundary]] with [[France]]'s [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] to the southeast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gallay |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429 |title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-48718-0 |page=429 |access-date=January 19, 2018 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232444/https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |publisher=[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] |year=2008 |page=20}}</ref>

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the [[Canadian Shield]], the [[interior plains]], the [[Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands]], the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian region]], the [[Pacific Cordillera (Canada)|Western Cordillera]], [[Hudson Bay Lowlands]], and the [[Arctic Archipelago]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |work=The Atlas of Canada |title=Physiographic Regions of Canada |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |date=September 12, 2016 |archive-date=June 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621185011/https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Taiga|Boreal forests]] prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in [[Northern Canada|northern Arctic regions]] and through the [[Rocky Mountains]], and the relatively flat [[Canadian Prairies]] in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.<ref name="McColl2005" /> The Great Lakes feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.<ref name="McColl2005" /> Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}—containing much of the world's [[fresh water]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=William G |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |title=The surface climates of Canada |last2=Oke |first2=TR |last3=Rouse |first3=Wayne R |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7735-1672-4 |page=124}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=December 5, 2012 |title=Physical Components of Watersheds |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205125542/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archive-date=December 5, 2012 |website=The Atlas of Canada}}</ref> There are also fresh-water glaciers in the [[Canadian Rockies]], the [[Coast Mountains]], and the [[Arctic Cordillera]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sandford |first=Robert William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |title=Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water |publisher=Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-927330-20-3 |page=11 |access-date=June 21, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232445/https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Geology of Canada|Canada is geologically active]], having [[List of earthquakes in Canada|many earthquakes]] and [[Volcanism of Canada|potentially active volcanoes]], notably [[Mount Meager massif]], [[Mount Garibaldi]], [[Mount Cayley]], and the [[Mount Edziza volcanic complex]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Etkin |first1=David |title=An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada |last2=Haque |first2=CE |last3=Brooks |first3=Gregory R |date=April 30, 2003 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-1179-5 |pages=569, 582, 583}}</ref>

Much of [[Northern Canada]] is covered by ice and [[permafrost]]. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of [[climate change in Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bush |first1=E. |last2=Lemmen |first2=D.S. |year=2019 |title=Canada's Changing Climate Report |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf |publisher=Government of Canada |page=84 |archive-date=April 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422235552/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by {{convert|1.7|C-change}}, with changes ranging from {{convert|1.1|to|2.3|C-change}} in various regions, since 1948.<ref name="McColl2005" /> The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.<ref name="ClimateReport">{{cite web |first1=X. |last1=Zhang |first2=G. |last2=Flato |last3=Kirchmeier-Young |first3=M. |first4=L. |last4=Vincent |first5=H. |last5=Wan |first6=X. |last6=Wang |first7=R. |last7=Rong |first8=J. |last8=Fyfe |first9=G. |last9=Li|first0=V. |last0=KharinV. |year=2019 |title=Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Across Canada; Chapter 4 |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR-Chapter4-TemperatureAndPrecipitationAcrossCanada.pdf |website=Canada's Changing Climate Report |publisher=Government of Canada |pages=112–193 |editor-last=Bush |editor-first=E. |editor-last2=Lemmen |editor-first2=D.S. |archive-date=December 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218102442/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR-Chapter4-TemperatureAndPrecipitationAcrossCanada.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In the southern regions of Canada, [[Air pollution in Canada|air pollution from both Canada]] and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in [[acid rain]], which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=David R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeYgVGE9j3EC&pg=PA67 |title=Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4063-7 |pages=67–69}}</ref> Canada is one of the largest [[List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emitter globally]],<ref>{{cite web |title={{!}} Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions {{!}} Climate Watch |url=https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions |website=www.climatewatchdata.org |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=March 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321170958/https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions |url-status=live}}</ref> with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.<ref name="j018">{{cite web |last=Canada |first=Climate Change |title=Greenhouse gas emissions |website=Canada.ca |date=January 9, 2007 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/greenhouse-gas-emissions.html |access-date=May 18, 2024 |archive-date=April 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411165603/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/greenhouse-gas-emissions.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Canada is divided into [[Ecozones of Canada|15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones]].<ref>{{cite web |date=January 10, 2018 |title=Introduction to the Ecological Land Classification (ELC) 2017 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-1 |publisher=Statistics Canada |archive-date=November 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116145635/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-1 |url-status=live}}</ref> These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of [[Wildlife of Canada|Canadian wildlife]], with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf |title=Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada |work=National General Status Working Group: 1 |publisher=Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council |year=2016 |quote=The new estimate indicates that there are about 80,000 known species in Canada, excluding viruses and bacteria |page=2 |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127203149/https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Although Canada has a low percentage of [[Megadiverse countries|endemic species compared to other countries]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ca |title=Canada: Main Details |publisher=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810215710/https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ca |url-status=live}}</ref> due to human activities, [[Wildlife of Canada#Invasive species|invasive species]], and [[Environmental issues in Canada|environmental issues in the country]], there are currently more than [[List of Wildlife Species at Risk (Canada)|800 species at risk of being lost]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-annual-reports/2019-2020.html |publisher=Species at Risk Public Registry |title=COSEWIC Annual Report |year=2019 |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305111710/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-annual-reports/2019-2020.html |url-status=live}}</ref> About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=17F0CBCE-1#s1i |title=Wild Species 2000: The General Status of Species in Canada |year=2001 |publisher=Conservation Council |archive-date=October 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016214436/https://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=17F0CBCE-1#s1i |url-status=live}}</ref> Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://naturecanada.ca/news/archived/state-of-canadas-biodiversity-highlighted-in-new-government-report/ |title=State of Canada's Biodiversity Highlighted in New Government Report |date=October 22, 2010 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122031530/https://naturecanada.ca/news/archived/state-of-canadas-biodiversity-highlighted-in-new-government-report/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[boreal forest of Canada]] is considered to be the largest [[Intact forest landscape|intact forest]] on Earth, with approximately {{Convert|3000000|km2|abbr=on}} undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter H. |last1=Raven |first2=Linda R. |last2=Berg |first3=David M. |last3=Hassenzahl |title=Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVpO2R51JBIC&pg=RA1-PA361 |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-94570-4 |pages=1–3 |access-date=January 18, 2021 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232447/https://books.google.com/books?id=QVpO2R51JBIC&pg=RA1-PA361#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the end of the last [[glacial period]], Canada has consisted of [[Forests of Canada#Regions|eight distinct forest regions]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=National Atlas of Canada |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7705-1198-2 |page=1}}</ref> with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Luckert |first1=Martin K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Gm-rBnGghcC&pg=PA1 |title=Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices |last2=Haley |first2=David |last3=Hoberg |first3=George |publisher=UBC Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7748-2069-1 |page=1 |access-date=July 5, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232458/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Gm-rBnGghcC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are [[National Wildlife Area|conservation areas]], including 11.4 percent designated as [[Protected areas of Canada|protected areas]].<ref name="conserved" /> Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.<ref name="conserved">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/conserved-areas.html |title=Canada's conserved areas |publisher=Environment and Climate Canada |year=2020 |archive-date=April 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402184441/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/conserved-areas.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada's first [[National Parks of Canada|National Park]], [[Banff National Park]] established in 1885, spans {{convert|6,641|km2}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/pm-mp/guidem-mguide/sec15/gm-mg15_e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615122147/http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/pm-mp/guidem-mguide/sec15/gm-mg15_e.pdf |archive-date=June 15, 2006 |title=The Mountain Guide – Banff National Park |publisher=Parks Canada |year=2006}}</ref> of mountainous terrain, with many [[glacier]]s and [[ice field]]s, dense [[conifer]]ous forest, and alpine landscapes.<ref>{{cite book |first=Martin F. |last=Price |title=Mountain Area Research and Management: Integrated Approaches |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNIZihxXTwsC&pg=PA217 |year=2013 |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-84977-201-3 |pages=217–218 |access-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232505/https://books.google.com/books?id=hNIZihxXTwsC&pg=PA217#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Canada's oldest provincial park, [[Algonquin Provincial Park]], established in 1893, covers an area of {{convert|7653.45|km2}}. It is dominated by [[old-growth forest]] with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/algonquin-provincial-park-management-plan |title=Algonquin Provincial Park Management Plan |year=1998 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209143502/https://www.ontario.ca/page/algonquin-provincial-park-management-plan |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area]] is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly {{convert|10000|km2}} of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on {{convert|60|km2}} of islands and mainland.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/mpaspotlight-pleinsfeuxzpm/index-eng.html |title=Spotlight on Marine Protected Areas in Canada |publisher=Fisheries and Oceans Canada |date=December 13, 2017 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413193502/https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/mpaspotlight-pleinsfeuxzpm/index-eng.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada's largest national wildlife region is the [[Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area]], which spans {{convert|11570.65|km2}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Scott Islands Marine National Widllife Area |url=https://www.protectedplanet.net/555695926 |access-date=September 25, 2020 |website=Protected Planet}}</ref> and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia's [[seabirds]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/national-wildlife-areas/locations/scott-islands-marine/regulatory-strategy.html |title=Proposed Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area: regulatory strategy |publisher=Environment and Climate Change Canada |date=February 7, 2013 |archive-date=January 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123182613/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/national-wildlife-areas/locations/scott-islands-marine/regulatory-strategy.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Canada is described as a "[[Democracy Index|full democracy]]",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 Democracy Index |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |archive-date=December 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220221533/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q |url-status=live}}</ref> with a tradition of [[liberalism]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Westhues |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives |last2=Wharf |first2=Brian |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-55458-409-3 |pages=10–11 |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232948/https://books.google.com/books?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and an [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bickerton |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&pg=PA56 |title=Canadian Politics |last2=Gagnon |first2=Alain |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-0121-5 |page=56 |access-date=November 3, 2018 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233027/https://books.google.com/books?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&pg=PA56#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Political moderate|moderate]] political ideology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |edition=4th |pages=13–23 |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010046/https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |url-status=live }}</ref> An emphasis on [[social justice]] has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=McQuaig |first=L. |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |publisher=Doubleday Canada |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT14 |page=14 |access-date=October 28, 2021 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233040/https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT14#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fierlbeck |first=Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bZBHlF4V8EC&pg=PA87 |title=Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55111-711-9 |page=87 |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-date=November 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110011729/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bZBHlF4V8EC&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Peace, order, and good government]], alongside an [[Implied Bill of Rights]], are founding principles of the Canadian government.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries |last2=P. Scheurell |first2=Robert |date=March 17, 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-36677-5 |page=48 |access-date=October 14, 2018 |archive-date=November 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110011729/https://books.google.com/books?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Boughey |first=Janina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgK-DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |title=Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism? |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5099-0788-5 |page=105 |access-date=March 23, 2019 |archive-date=November 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110011729/https://books.google.com/books?id=dgK-DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively [[Centrism|centrist]] parties practising "brokerage politics":{{efn| name=politics|"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful [[Big tent|big tent parties]] that embody a [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting [[Centrism|centrist policies]] and [[Electoral alliance|electoral coalitions]] to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marland |first1=Alex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSeSaYPa2A4C&pg=PA257 |title=Political Marketing in Canada |last2=Giasson |first2=Thierry |last3=Lees-Marshment |first3=Jennifer |publisher=UBC Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7748-2231-2 |page=257 |access-date=July 28, 2019 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010034/https://books.google.com/books?id=GSeSaYPa2A4C&pg=PA257 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA195 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |last2=Smith |first2=David |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=195 |access-date=December 3, 2019 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010040/https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA195 |url-status=live }}</ref> "The traditional ''brokerage'' model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."<ref>{{cite journal |first=Christopher |last=Cochrane |year=2010 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40983510 |title=Left/Right Ideology and Canadian Politics |journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne de Science Politique |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=583–605 |doi=10.1017/S0008423910000624 |jstor=40983510 |s2cid=154420921 |access-date=January 30, 2021 |archive-date=February 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201174114/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40983510 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Brooks |title=Canadian Democracy: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeQnPIXV5CEC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-541806-4 |page=265 |quote=Two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics |access-date=July 1, 2019 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010051/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeQnPIXV5CEC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Miriam |last=Smith |title=Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0695-1 |page=17 |quote=Canada's party system has long been described as a "brokerage system" in which the leading parties (Liberal and Conservative) follow strategies that appeal across major [[Cleavage (politics)|social cleavages]] in an effort to defuse potential tensions. |access-date=July 25, 2019 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010047/https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=...most Canadian governments, especially in the federal sphere, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy... |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010046/https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} the [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] leaning [[Liberal Party of Canada]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bittner |first1=Amanda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 |title=Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics |last2=Koop |first2=Royce |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2411-8 |page=300 |access-date=October 10, 2018 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331005406/https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Johnston |first=Richard |title=The baffling history of Canada's party system |website=Policy Options |date=April 13, 2021 |url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ |archive-date=December 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209225002/https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[centre-right]] leaning [[Conservative Party of Canada]] (or its [[Conservative Party of Canada#Predecessors|predecessors]]).<ref name="Gill 2021 p. 485">{{cite journal |last=Gill |first=Jessica K. |title=Unpacking the Role of Neoliberalism on the Politics of Poverty Reduction Policies in Ontario, Canada: A Descriptive Case Study and Critical Analysis |journal=Social Sciences |publisher=MDPI AG |volume=10 |issue=12 |date=December 20, 2021 |issn=2076-0760 |doi=10.3390/socsci10120485 |page=485 | doi-access=free}}</ref> The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale.<ref name="Gill 2021 p. 485" /> Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the [[2021 Canadian federal election|2021 election]]—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|Official Opposition]]; the New Democratic Party (occupying the [[Left-wing politics|left]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166 |title=Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective |last2=de Graaf |first2=Nan Dirk |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966399-6 |pages=166–167 |access-date=November 3, 2018 |archive-date=November 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110011730/https://books.google.com/books?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZAwDwAAQBAJ |title=The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History |publisher=UBC Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7748-3610-4 |access-date=November 12, 2018 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232950/https://books.google.com/books?id=aZAwDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>); the [[Bloc Québécois]]; and the [[Green Party of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Election 2015 roundup |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |archive-date=October 22, 2015 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> [[Far-right]] and [[far-left]] politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ambrose |first1=Emma |last2=Mudde |first2=Cas |year=2015 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 |s2cid=145773856}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=June 27, 2017 |title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627090321/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |archive-date=June 27, 2017 |issn=1553-8095 |oclc=1645522}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=John |title=What's actually standing in the way of right-wing populism in Canada? |website=Macleans.ca |date=February 8, 2022 |url=https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |archive-date=October 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031024415/https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Canada has a [[parliamentary system]] within the context of a [[constitutional monarchy]]—the [[monarchy of Canada]] being the foundation of the executive, [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dowding |first1=Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AClHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT395 |title=The Selection of Ministers around the World |last2=Dumont |first2=Patrick |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-63444-7 |page=395 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232952/https://books.google.com/books?id=AClHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT395#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=March 29, 1867 |title=Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble |url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203024121/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |archive-date=February 3, 2010 |publisher=[[Queen's Printer]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=David E |date=June 10, 2010 |title=The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy? |page=6 |work=The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options |publisher=[[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]] |url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C?url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archive-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref><ref name="MacLeod16">{{Cite book |last=MacLeod |first=Kevin S |url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |title=A Crown of Maples |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-662-46012-1 |edition=2nd |page=16 |author-link=Kevin S. MacLeod |access-date=March 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105160848/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |archive-date=January 5, 2016}}</ref> The [[reign]]ing monarch is also monarch of [[Commonwealth realm|14 other Commonwealth countries]] (though, all are sovereign of one another<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196 |title=Battle Royal: Monarchists vs. Republicans and the Crown of Canada |date=2018 |publisher=Dundurn Press |isbn=978-1-4597-4015-0 |page=196 |access-date=February 18, 2018 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232952/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>) and [[Monarchy in the Canadian provinces|each of Canada's 10 provinces]]. To carry out most of their federal royal duties in Canada, the monarch appoints a representative, the [[Governor General of Canada|governor general]], on the [[Advice (constitutional law)|advice]] of the [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities |url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Queen's Printer |archive-date=September 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915122338/http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54 |title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004 |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-11-703249-1 |pages=54–55}}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodek |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |title=The Canadian Constitution |publisher=Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4597-3505-7 |page=13 |access-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130232953/https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (known as the [[British North America Acts|British North America Act, 1867]] prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olive |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=The Canadian Environment in Political Context |date=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0871-9 |pages=41–42 |access-date=June 15, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233500/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''Statute of Westminster, 1931'', granted full autonomy, and the ''Constitution Act, 1982'', ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhagwan |first1=Vishnoo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |title=World Constitutions |last2=Vidya |first2=Bhushan |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-207-1937-8 |pages=549–550 |access-date=June 15, 2017 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233506/https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''Charter'' guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government; though, a [[Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the ''Charter'' for a period of five years.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bakan |first1=Joel |title=Canadian Constitutional Law |last2=Elliot |first2=Robin M |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-55239-085-6 |pages=3–8, 683–687, 699}}</ref>

[[Court system of Canada|Canada's judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since December 18, 2017, by [[Richard Wagner (judge)|Richard Wagner]], the [[Chief Justice of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |date=December 18, 2017 |title=Current and Former Chief Justices |url=http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180116062534/http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |archive-date=January 16, 2018 |publisher=Supreme Court of Canada}}</ref> The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and [[Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada|minister of justice]].<ref name="UCP-2018">{{cite book |title=Law, Politics, and the Judicial Process in Canada, 4th Edition |publisher=University of Calgary Press |edition=4 |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-55238-990-4 |jstor=j.ctv56fggn |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv56fggn |pages=117–172 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv56fggn |s2cid=240317161 |access-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-date=May 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501122621/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv56fggn |url-status=live }}</ref> The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Yates |first1=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 |title=Introduction to Law in Canada |last2=Bain |first2=Penny |last3=Yates |first3=Ruth |publisher=Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-13-792862-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 93]}}</ref>

[[Common law]] prevails everywhere, except in Quebec, where [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates.<ref>{{cite book |first=Julian |last=Hermida |title=Criminal Law in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT9sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |date=May 9, 2018 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |isbn=978-90-411-9627-9 |pages=10– |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233502/https://books.google.com/books?id=MT9sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sworden |first=Philip James |title=An introduction to Canadian law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55239-145-7 |pages=22, 150}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Who we are |url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073944/http://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=Ontario Provincial Police}}</ref> In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref name="Sullivan-2005">{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=L.E. |title=Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement |publisher=SAGE Publications |issue=v. 3 |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7619-2649-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L145DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA995 |page=995 |access-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-date=June 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602222507/https://books.google.com/books?id=L145DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA995 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Canadian Aboriginal law]] provides certain [[Aboriginal land title in Canada|constitutionally recognized rights to land]] and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Jim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpaDwAAQBAJ |title=Aboriginal Peoples and the Law: A Critical Introduction |publisher=UBC Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7748-8023-7 |access-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233502/https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpaDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.<ref name="FN">{{Cite report |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |title=Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 |last=Patterson |first=Lisa Lynne |publisher=Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament |page=3 |access-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126203243/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |series=1 |year=2004 |url-status=live |archive-date=November 26, 2014}}</ref> The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by [[section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982]].<ref name="FN" /> These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the [[Indian Health Transfer Policy]], and exemption from taxation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madison |first=Gary Brent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |title=Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity |publisher=[[University of Ottawa Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7766-0514-2 |page=128}}</ref>

Canada is a federation composed of 10 [[federated states]], called provinces, and three [[federal territories]]. In turn, these may be grouped into [[List of regions of Canada|four main regions]]: [[Western Canada]], [[Central Canada]], [[Atlantic Canada]], and [[Northern Canada]] (''[[Eastern Canada]]'' refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hamel |first1=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |title=Suburban Governance: A Global View |last2=Keil |first2=Roger |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4426-6357-2 |page=81 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233510/https://books.google.com/books?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as [[Healthcare in Canada|healthcare]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[Social programs in Canada|welfare]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doern |first1=G. Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting |last2=Maslove |first2=Allan M. |last3=Prince |first3=Michael J. |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0 |page=1}}</ref> as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, [[equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clemens |first1=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context |last2=Veldhuis |first2=Niels |publisher=[[Fraser Institute]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-88975-215-3 |page=8}}</ref>

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Michael D. |title=The Canadian Monarchy in Saskatchewan |publisher=Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan |year=1990 |location=Regina |page=14 |edition=2nd}}</ref> and power and authority from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the [[Parliament of Canada]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Oliver |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution |last2=Macklem |first2=Patrick |last3=Des Rosiers |first3=Nathalie |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-066482-4 |pages=498–499 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234013/https://books.google.com/books?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA498#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and the commissioners represent the [[King-in-Council|King in his federal Council]],<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.commissioner.gov.nt.ca/en/role-commissioner |author=Commissioner of the Northwest Territories |title=Role of the Commissioner |publisher=Government of Northwest Territories |access-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308194120/https://www.commissioner.gov.nt.ca/en/role-commissioner |url-status=live}}</ref> rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meligrana |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uL9hLqPSdi0C&pg=PA75 |title=Redrawing Local Government Boundaries: An International Study of Politics, Procedures, and Decisions |publisher=UBC Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7748-0934-4 |page=75 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234009/https://books.google.com/books?id=uL9hLqPSdi0C&pg=PA75#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and any changes to that arrangement require a [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|constitutional amendment]], while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Norman L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek7cloNk3E8C&pg=PA174 |title=The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-7705-1742-7 |pages=174–175 |access-date=December 11, 2018 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234009/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek7cloNk3E8C&pg=PA174#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Canadian embassies map.png|right|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Diplomatic missions of Canada]]<ref name="GAC 2014 c263">{{cite web |title=Diplomatic Missions and Consular Posts Accredited to Canada |website=GAC |date=Jun 10, 2014 |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/missions.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=Feb 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226073816/https://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/missions.aspx?lang=eng |url-status=live }}</ref>

Canada is recognized as a [[middle power]] for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue [[Multilateralism|multilateral]] and [[Internationalism (politics)|international]] solutions.<ref name="Chapnick2011a">{{Cite book |last=Chapnick |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |title=The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4049-1 |pages=2–5 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233503/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Gabryś Soroka 2017 p. 39">{{cite book |last1=Gabryś |first1=M. |last2=Soroka |first2=T. |title=Canada as a selective power: Canada's Role and International Position after 1989 |publisher=Neriton, Wydawnictwo |series=Societas |year=2017 |isbn=978-83-7638-792-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTpyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |page=39 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226190900/https://books.google.com/books?id=FTpyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Munton Keating 2001 pp. 517–549">{{cite journal |last1=Munton |first1=Don |last2=Keating |first2=Tom |title=Internationalism and the Canadian Public |journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique |publisher=Canadian Political Science Association |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2001 |issn=0008-4239 |jstor=3233002 |pages=517–549 |doi=10.1017/S0008423901777992 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3233002 |access-date=March 5, 2024 |archive-date=September 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922070235/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3233002 |url-status=live }}</ref> Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions, international organizations, and the work of numerous federal institutions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sens |first1=Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Global Politics |last2=Stoett |first2=Peter |publisher=Nelson Education |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-17-648249-7 |edition=5th |page=6 |access-date=December 12, 2015 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233508/https://books.google.com/books?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Plans at a glance and operating context |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/priorities-priorites.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=August 4, 2020 |publisher=Global Affairs Canada |archive-date=September 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925025404/https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/priorities-priorites.aspx?lang=eng}}</ref> Canada is known for its strong commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,<ref name="o407">{{cite book |last=Courtney |first=J. |last2=Courtney |first2=J.C. |last3=Smith |first3=D. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |publisher=OUP USA |series=Oxford Handbooks in Politics & International Relations |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA363 |page=363 |access-date=May 9, 2024 |archive-date=May 9, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509132940/https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA363 |url-status=live }}</ref> and for providing aid to developing countries.<ref name="p004">{{cite web |title=Development Co-operation Profiles – Canada |website=OECD iLibrary |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/aa7e3298-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/aa7e3298-en |access-date=May 28, 2024 |archive-date=May 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528044344/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/aa7e3298-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/aa7e3298-en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="o880">{{cite web |title=Report to parliament on the Government of Canada's international assistance 2021-2022 |website=GAC |date=2023-05-15 |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/transparency-transparence/international-assistance-report-rapport-aide-internationale/2021-2022-toc-tdm.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=2024-05-29 |archive-date=May 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529014333/https://www.international.gc.ca/transparency-transparence/international-assistance-report-rapport-aide-internationale/2021-2022-toc-tdm.aspx?lang=eng |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS) is tasked with gathering and analyzing intelligence to prevent threats such as [[Terrorism in Canada|terrorism]], espionage, and foreign interference,<ref name="Lowenthal 2019 p. 480">{{cite book |last=Lowenthal |first=M.M. |authorlink=Mark Lowenthal |title=Intelligence: From Secrets to Policy |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5443-5836-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx2yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA480 |pages=480, 482 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226023206/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx2yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA480 |url-status=live }}</ref> while the [[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE) is focused on [[Cybercrime in Canada|cyber security]] and protecting Canada's digital infrastructure.<ref name="Lowenthal 2019 p. 480" />

[[Canada–United States relations|Canada and the United States]] have a long, complex, and intertwined relationship;<ref name="The Canadian Encyclopedia 2020 s579">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Canada and the United States |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=June 11, 2020 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states |archive-date=October 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029025447/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states | url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nord Weller p.">{{cite book |last1=Nord |first1=D.C. |last2=Weller |first2=G.R. |title=Canada and the United States: An Introduction to a Complex Relationship |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GO7PGwAACAAJ |page=14 |access-date=October 29, 2023 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107184648/https://books.google.com/books?id=GO7PGwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.<ref name="Carment Sands 2019 p. 3">{{cite book |last1=Carment |first1=D. |last2=Sands |first2=C. |title=Canada–US Relations: Sovereignty or Shared Institutions? |publisher=Springer International Publishing |series=Canada and International Affairs |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-05036-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TT6EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |pages=3–10 |access-date=October 29, 2023 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107054302/https://books.google.com/books?id=TT6EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haglung |first=David G |date=Autumn 2003 |title=North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security |journal=[[Orbis (journal)|Orbis]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=675–691 |doi=10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3}}</ref> Canada also maintains historic and traditional [[Canada–United Kingdom relations|ties to the United Kingdom]] and [[Canada–France relations|to France]],<ref name="Morrison 2008 p. 177">{{cite journal |last=Morrison |first=Katherine L. |title=The Only Canadians: Canada's French and the British Connection |journal=International Journal of Canadian Studies |publisher=Consortium Erudit |issue=37 |year=2008 |issn=1180-3991 |doi=10.7202/040800ar |page=177 |language=fr |doi-access=free}}</ref> along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and the {{Lang|fr|[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=Patrick |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3 |editor-last=Michaud |editor-first=Nelson |pages=213–214, 349–362 |editor-last2=O'Reilly |editor-first2=Marc J}}</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive [[Canada–Netherlands relations|relationship with the Netherlands]], owing, in part, to its contribution to the [[Liberation of the Netherlands|Dutch liberation during the Second World War]].<ref name="netherlands" /> [[List of diplomatic missions of Canada|Canada has diplomatic and consular offices]] in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.<ref name="GAC 2014 c263" />

Canada is a [[International organisation membership of Canada|member of various international organizations and forums]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=International Organizations and Forums |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227153935/http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |archive-date=February 27, 2014 |access-date=March 3, 2014 |publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada}}</ref> [[Canada and the United Nations|Canada was a founding member of the United Nations]] in 1945 and formed the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] together with the United States in 1958.<ref name="Wilson 2012 p. 10">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=G.A.A. |title=NORAD and the Soviet Nuclear Threat: Canada's Secret Electronic Air War |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4597-0412-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-nvkPFdUREC&pg=PT10 |page=10 |access-date=February 29, 2024 |archive-date=March 31, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331231844/https://books.google.com/books?id=S-nvkPFdUREC&pg=PT10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The country has membership in the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Five Eyes]], the [[G7]] and the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD).<ref name="Chapnick2011a" /> The country joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1990,<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKenna |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91 |title=Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4426-1108-5 |page=91 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233508/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and seeks to expand its ties to [[Pacific Rim]] economies through membership in the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum (APEC).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities |year=2015 |publisher=International Business Publications |isbn=978-0-7397-1615-1 |page=27}}</ref> Canada ratified the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.<ref name="Heritage 2017 a990">{{cite web |last=Heritage |first=Canadian |title=Human rights treaties |website=Canada.ca |date=October 23, 2017 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/canada-united-nations-system/treaties.html |access-date=March 15, 2024 |archive-date=March 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315141714/https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/canada-united-nations-system/treaties.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Alongside many [[List of Canadian military operations#Domestic|domestic obligations]], more than 3,000 [[Canadian Armed Forces]] (CAF) personnel are currently [[List of Canadian military operations#Foreign|deployed in multiple foreign military operations]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/current-operations/list.html |title=Current operations list |year=2024 |publisher=National Defence |access-date=September 24, 2020 |archive-date=November 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102133817/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/current-operations/list.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Canadian unified forces comprise the [[Royal Canadian Navy]], [[Canadian Army]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/policies-standards/canada-defence-policy.html |title=Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada's Defence Policy |publisher=National Defence |date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=September 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924030653/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/policies-standards/canada-defence-policy.html |url-status=live}}</ref>—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 [[Canadian Rangers]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/transition-materials/defence-101/2020/03/defence-101/caf-101.html |title=Canadian Armed Forces 101 |date=March 11, 2021 |publisher=National Defence |archive-date=October 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030051937/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/transition-materials/defence-101/2020/03/defence-101/caf-101.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn| name=Force| "The [[Royal Canadian Navy]] is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 [[Canadian Rangers]]. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/about/canadian-armed-forces.page |title=About the Canadian Armed Forces |date=March 11, 2021 |publisher=National Defence |archive-date=March 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317004607/http://forces.gc.ca/en/about/canadian-armed-forces.page |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9&nbsp;billion, or around 1.2&nbsp;percent of the country's [[gross domestic product]] (GDP){{snd}}placing it 14th for [[List of countries by military expenditures|military expenditure by country]].<ref name="SIPRI-2022">{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |archive-date=April 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423231601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Canadian peacekeeping|Canada's role in developing ''peacekeeping'' and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives]] during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sorenson |first1=David S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OZ6NRiL5MkC&pg=PA158 |title=The Politics of Peacekeeping in the Post-cold War Era |last2=Wood |first2=Pia Christina |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7146-8488-8 |page=158 |access-date=August 4, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233504/https://books.google.com/books?id=2OZ6NRiL5MkC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sobel |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21 |title=International Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis |last2=Shiraev |first2=Eric |last3=Shapiro |first3=Robert |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7391-0480-4 |page=21 |access-date=December 12, 2015 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130233504/https://books.google.com/books?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The notion of peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its closest ally, the United States.<ref name="Gutiérrez-Haces 2018 s015">{{cite book |last=Gutiérrez-Haces |first=Maria Teresa |title=Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy |series=Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes &#124; International Canadian Studies Series |date=Nov 6, 2018 |pages=231–250 |publisher=University of Ottawa Press |isbn=978-0-7766-2722-9 |url=https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en |access-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065237/https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en | url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Carroll 2016 pp. 167–176">{{cite journal |last=Carroll |first=Michael K |title=Peacekeeping: Canada's past, but not its present and future? |journal=International Journal |publisher=[Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council] |volume=71 |issue=1 |year=2016 |issn=0020-7020 |jstor=44631172 |pages=167–176 |doi=10.1177/0020702015619857 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 |access-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228173148/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Anon. u211">{{cite web |title=Canada's Current Role in World |url=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4 |publisher=Environics Institute for Survey Research |access-date=2024-03-04 |archive-date=2024-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065232/https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4 |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594" /><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63">{{cite book |last1=Mingst |first1=K. |last2=Karns |first2=M.P. |title=The United Nations In The Post-cold War Era, Second Edition |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-000-30674-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kk2fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 |page=63 |access-date=April 29, 2024 |archive-date=April 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404045916/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kk2fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 |url-status=live }}</ref> such as the [[Canada and the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]] or the [[Canada and the Iraq War|2003 invasion of Iraq]].<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594">{{cite journal |last=Massie |first=Justin |title=Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions |journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) |volume=52 |issue=3 |date=2019-04-30 |issn=0008-4239 |doi=10.1017/s0008423919000040 |pages=575–594}}</ref><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63" /> Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.<ref name="JohnsonJoshee2007">{{cite book |first1=Lauri |last1=Johnson |first2=Reva |last2=Joshee |title=Multicultural education policies in Canada and the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8jr_pE3YPwC&pg=PA23 |year=2007 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1325-9 |page=23}}</ref> The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military [[Canada in NATO|operations through NATO]], rather than directly through the UN.<ref name="McQuaig2010bt">{{cite book |first=Linda |last=McQuaig |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT50 |year=2010 |publisher=Random House Digital |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |page=50}}</ref> The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.<ref name="James Michaud OReilly 2006 p. 177">{{cite book |last1=James |first1=P. |last2=Michaud |first2=N. |last3=O'Reilly |first3=M. |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-5580-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTk2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA177 |page=177 |access-date=April 29, 2024 |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325071315/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTk2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA177 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Toronto_from_above_at_night.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Financial District, Toronto|Toronto financial district]] is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sassen |first=Saskia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wBlcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT210 |title=Cities in a World Economy |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5063-6260-1 |edition=5th |page=210 |access-date=November 5, 2020 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234010/https://books.google.com/books?id=wBlcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT210#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Canada has a [[Developed country|highly developed]] [[Mixed-market|mixed-market economy]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Peter A. |last2=Soskice |first2=David |date=2001 |title=Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EU02HzYJeFsC&q=canada+a+market+economy |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=570 |isbn=9780191647703 |access-date=May 8, 2022 |archive-date=July 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723222356/https://books.google.com/books?id=EU02HzYJeFsC&q=canada+a+market+economy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Capitalism in Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/capitalism-in-canada#:~:text=Canada%20has%20a%20%E2%80%9Cmixed%E2%80%9D%20economy |first=Peter |last=Diekmeyer |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |date=June 11, 2020 |archive-date=October 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016165252/https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/capitalism-in-canada#:~:text=Canada%20has%20a%20%E2%80%9Cmixed%E2%80%9D%20economy |url-status=live}}</ref> with the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|ninth-largest economy]] {{As of|2023|lc=y}}, and a [[nominal GDP]] of approximately {{US$|2.221&nbsp;trillion|link=yes}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2, 2019 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922140957/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is one of the world's largest [[trading nation]]s, with a highly [[globalized]] economy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 |title=Evolution of the world's 25 top trading nations – Share of global exports of goods (%), 1978–2020 |publisher=[[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715130020/https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016&nbsp;trillion.<ref name="econ">{{cite journal |year=2021 |title=U.S.-Canada Trade Facts |url=https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada |url-status=live |journal=Canada's State of Trade |edition=20 |publisher=Global Affairs Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417130737/https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada |archive-date=April 17, 2022}} [https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf PDF version]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003053553/https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf|date=October 3, 2019}}.</ref> Canada's exports totalled over $637&nbsp;billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631&nbsp;billion, of which approximately $391&nbsp;billion originated from the United States.<ref name="econ" /> In 2018, Canada had a [[trade deficit]] in goods of $22&nbsp;billion and a trade deficit in services of $25&nbsp;billion.<ref name="econ" /> The [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by [[market capitalization]], listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over {{US$|2&nbsp;trillion}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Monthly Reports |url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |publisher=World Federation of Exchanges |archive-date=February 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218202537/https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |url-status=live}}{{as of|2018|November|lc=y}}</ref>

The [[Bank of Canada]] is the [[central bank]] of the country.<ref name="Watts-1993">{{cite book |last=Watts |first=George S. |title=Bank of Canada/La Banque du Canada: Origines et premieres annees/Origins and Early History |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-88629-182-2 |jstor=j.ctt9qf36m |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qf36m |access-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-date=May 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502121622/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qf36m |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|minister of finance]] and [[Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry|minister of innovation, science, and industry]] use data from [[Statistics Canada]] to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.<ref>{{cite web |year=2014 |title=About |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2015 |access-date=March 8, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Canada has a strong [[cooperative banking]] sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in [[credit union]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kobrak |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |title=From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance |last2=Martin |first2=Joe |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4426-1625-7 |page=220 |access-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234011/https://books.google.com/books?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> It ranks low in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] (14th in 2023)<ref name="cpi">{{cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index (latest) |date=January 31, 2023 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |archive-date=July 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724013412/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rotberg |first1=Robert I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 |title=Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad |last2=Carment |first2=David |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-57924-7 |page=12 |access-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234011/https://books.google.com/books?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> It ranks high in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] (14th in 2019)<ref name="rank 2019">{{Cite web |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |access-date=October 21, 2022 |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009004538/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Global Innovation Index]] (15th in 2023).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=October 17, 2023 |publisher=WIPO |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |archive-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |url-status=live |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |date=April 29, 2024 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0}}</ref> Canada's economy ranks above most [[Western nations]] on [[The Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]]<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Index of Economic Freedom |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |access-date=May 8, 2021 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420111447/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |url-status=live}}</ref> and experiences a relatively low level of [[Economic inequality|income disparity]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] |title=Global Wealth Report |date=October 2018 |first1=Anthony |last1=Shorrocks |first2=Jim |last2=Davies |first3=Rodrigo |last3=Lluberas |archive-date=July 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718173830/https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The country's average household [[disposable income]] per capita is "well above" the OECD average.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |title=Canada |work=OECD Better Life Index |date=2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305123737/https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for [[Affordable housing in Canada|housing affordability]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |title=Prices - Housing prices |publisher=OECD |access-date=August 14, 2022 |archive-date=August 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811142758/https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="nationalpost 2022" /> and [[foreign direct investment]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/sppp/article/view/72311/55149 |title=View of 2020 Tax Competitiveness Report: Canada's Investment Challenge |year=2021 |doi=10.11575/sppp.v14i1.72311 |last1=Mintz |first1=Jack |last2=Bazel |first2=Philip |journal=The School of Public Policy Publications |volume=14 |issue=1 |access-date=May 13, 2023 |archive-date=December 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208164333/https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/sppp/article/view/72311/55149 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nationalpost 2022">{{cite web |title='Worst in the world': Here are all the rankings in which Canada is now last |website=National Post |date=August 11, 2022 |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234013/https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the early 20th century, the growth of [[Manufacturing in Canada|Canada's manufacturing]], mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harris |first1=R. Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: Addressing the Twentieth Century, 1891–1961 |last2=Matthews |first2=Geoffrey J. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8020-3448-9 |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |archive-date=March 20, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Canadian economy is dominated by the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service industry]], which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 8, 2009 |title=Employment by Industry |url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063742/http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |archive-date=May 24, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Canada has an unusually important [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]], of which the [[Forestry in Canada|forestry]] and [[Petroleum industry in Canada|petroleum industries]] are the most prominent components.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018">{{Cite book |last1=Sueyoshi |first1=Toshiyuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0RKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA496 |title=Environmental Assessment on Energy and Sustainability by Data Envelopment Analysis |last2=Goto |first2=Mika |publisher=Wiley |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-118-97933-4 |page=496 |access-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234525/https://books.google.com/books?id=s0RKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA496#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vodden |first1=K |last2=Cunsolo |first2=A. |year=2021 |url=https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/pdf/National_Issues_Report_Final_EN.pdf |title=Rural and Remote Communities; Chapter 3 |work=Canada in a Changing Climate: National Issues Report |editor1-first=F.J. |editor1-last=Warren |editor2-first=N. |editor2-last=Lulham |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=December 17, 2023 |archive-date=December 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209174936/https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/pdf/National_Issues_Report_Final_EN.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the [[Second World War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mosler |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38 |title=The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism |last2=Catley |first2=Bob |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4094-9852-0 |page=38}}</ref> The [[Canada&nbsp;– United States Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include [[Mexico]] in 1994 (later replaced by the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement]]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA569 |title=The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-511739-4 |editor-last=Krieger |editor-first=Joel |edition=2nd |page=569 |access-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234521/https://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA569#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2023, [[Free trade agreements of Canada|Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements]] with 51 different countries.<ref name="GAC 2020">{{cite web |title=Expand globally with Canada's free trade agreements |publisher=Trade Commissioner |date=December 3, 2020 |url=https://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/fta-ale-canada.aspx?lang=eng |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306015044/https://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/fta-ale-canada.aspx?lang=eng |url-status=live}}</ref>

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Charles E |title=World Energy Resources |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |isbn=978-3-540-42634-9 |pages=323, 378–389}}</ref> [[Offshore drilling in Atlantic Canada|Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/market-snapshots/2017/market-snapshot-25-years-atlantic-canada-offshore-oil-natural-gas-production.html |title=CER – Market Snapshot: 25 Years of Atlantic Canada Offshore Oil & Natural Gas Production |publisher=Canada Energy Regulator |date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=November 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128010325/https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/market-snapshots/2017/market-snapshot-25-years-atlantic-canada-offshore-oil-natural-gas-production.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.<ref name="Monga 2022">{{cite web |last=Monga |first=Vipal |title=One of the World's Dirtiest Oil Patches Is Pumping More Than Ever |website=Wall Street Journal |date=January 13, 2022 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/oil-sands-canada-dirty-carbon-environment-11642085980 |archive-date=June 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601095803/https://www.wsj.com/articles/oil-sands-canada-dirty-carbon-environment-11642085980 |url-status=live}}</ref> The vast [[Athabasca oil sands]] and other oil reserves give Canada 13&nbsp;percent of global oil reserves, constituting the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|world's third or fourth-largest]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez-Vallejo |first=Marcela |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgDtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=Reconfiguring Global Climate Governance in North America: A Transregional Approach |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-07042-9 |page=82 |access-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234522/https://books.google.com/books?id=fgDtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Canada is additionally one of the [[Agriculture in Canada|world's largest suppliers of agricultural products]]; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, [[canola]], and other grains.<ref>{{cite web |year=2017 |title=Trade Ranking Report: Agriculture |url=https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |publisher=FCC |archive-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003070556/https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[List of exports of Canada|country is a leading exporter]] of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, [[Platinum group|platinoids]], aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, [[molybdenum]], cobalt, and cadmium.<ref name="OEC-Complexity">{{cite web |title=Canada (CAN) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners |publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/can |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112011418/https://oec.world/en/profile/country/can |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Atlas of Economic Complexity">{{cite web |title=The Atlas of Economic Complexity by @HarvardGrwthLab |website=The Atlas of Economic Complexity |url=https://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/39 |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520150209/https://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/39 |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and [[aeronautics]] representing particularly important industries.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 22, 2015 |title=Mapping Canada's Top Manufacturing Industries |url=https://www.ibisworld.com/media/2015/01/22/mapping-canadas-top-manufacturing-industries/ |website=Industry Insider}}</ref> The [[Fishing industry in Canada|fishing industry]] is also a key contributor to the economy.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2021 n754">{{cite web |title=Canada's oceans and the economic contribution of marine sectors |website=Statistics Canada |date=July 19, 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/16-002-x/2021001/article/00001-eng.htm |access-date=September 15, 2023}}</ref>