Bryoria fremontii: Difference between revisions

Wila can be very abundant in some ecosystems. Researchers have documented up to 3291&nbsp;kg of arboreal hair lichens (of which wila was a major constituent) per hectare in some areas in the interior of British Columbia.<ref name="Edwards1960">Edwards, R. Y., J. Soos and R. W. Ritcey. 1960. Quantitative observations on epidendric lichens used as food by caribou. Ecology '''41'''(3): 425-431.</ref> Wila contains small amounts of protein (2.5 – 5 % dry weight<ref name="Fujikawa1970">Fujikawa, F., K. Hirai, T. Hirayama, T. Toyota, T. Nakamura, T. Nishimaki, T. Yoshikawa, S. Yasuda, S. Nishio, K. Kojitani, T. Nakai, T. Ando, Y. Tsuji, K. Tomisaki, M. Watanabe, M. Fujisawa, M. Nagai, M. Koyama, N. Matsuami, M. Urasaki and M. Takagawa. 1970. On the free amino acids in lichens of Japan. I. Yakugaku Zasshi '''90''': 1267-1274.</ref><ref name="Pulliainen1971">Pulliainen, E. 1971. Nutritive values of some lichens used as food by reindeer in northeasternnorth-eastern Lapland. Annales Zoologici Fennici '''8''': 385-389.</ref>) and significant quantities of the lichen carbohydrate lichenin (15 – 35% dry weight<ref name="Yanovsky1938">Yanovsky, E. and R. M. Kingsbury. 1938. Analyses of some Indian food plants. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists '''21'''(4): 648-665.</ref><ref name="Common1991">Common, R. S. 1991. The distribution and taxonomic significance of lichenan and isolichenan in the [[Parmeliaceae]] (lichenized Ascomycotina), as determined by iodine reactions.1. Introduction and methods.2. The genus ''Alectoria'' and associated taxa. Mycotaxon '''41'''(1): 67-112.</ref><ref name="Kirkpatrick2001">Kirkpatrick, R. C., R. J. Zou, E. S. Dierenfeld and H. W. Zhou. 2001. Digestion of selected foods by Yunnan snub-nosed monkey ''Rhinopithecus bieti'' (Colobinae). American Journal Of Physical Anthropology '''114'''(2): 156-162.</ref>), which is digestible to some animals. As a result of its abundance and potential nutrition, wila can be very important to the ecology of an area.

Wila (along with many other lichens) is significant food source for a variety of different species of [[ungulate]]s and [[rodent]]s.<ref name="Sharnoff1994">Sharnoff, S. 1994. Use of lichens by wildlife in North America. Research & Exploration '''10'''(3): 370-371.</ref> In North America, wila is particularly important for the [[northern flying squirrel]] (''Glaucomys sabrinus'') and the [[Reindeer|woodland caribou]] (''Rangifer tarandus caribou''). The northern flying squirrel eats large quantities of wila, particularly in the winter, when wila is often the only thing that it eats.<ref name="Rosentreter1997">Rosentreter, R., G. D. Hayward and M. WicklowHoward. 1997. Northern flying squirrel seasonal food habits in the interior conifer forests of central Idaho, USA. Northwest Science '''71'''(2): 97-102.</ref> This squirrel also uses wila to build its nest.<ref name="Hayward1994">Hayward, G. D. and R. Rosentreter. 1994. Lichens as nesting material for northern flying squirrels in the northern Rocky Mountains. Journal Of Mammalogy '''75'''(3): 663-673.</ref> During the winter, the woodland caribou in British Columbia<ref name="Kinley2003">Kinley, T. A., J. Bergenske, J. A. Davies and D. Quinn. 2003. Characteristics of early-winter caribou, ''Rangifer tarandus caribou'', feeding sites in the southern Purcell Mountains, British Columbia. Canadian Field-Naturalist '''117'''(3): 352-359.</ref> and Washington<ref name="Rominger1996">Rominger, E. M., C. T. Robbins and M. A. Evans. 1996. Winter foraging ecology of woodland caribou in northeasternnorth-eastern Washington. Journal Of Wildlife Management '''60'''(4): 719-728.</ref> survives almost entirely on arboreal lichens, and wila is one of the species of lichen that it prefers the most.

Wila can be collected at any time of year, but it is important to choose the right type of lichen. There are numerous other species of ''Bryoria'' that look very similar to wila, but that are bitter and mildly toxic. As well, there are some specimens of wila that contain toxic levels of vulpinic acid.<ref name="Stephenson1979">Stephenson, N. L. and P. W. Rundel. 1979. Quantitative variation and the ecological role of vulpinic acid and atranorin in the thallus of ''Letharia vulpina''. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology '''7''': 263-267.</ref> Most people that traditionally harvest wila have figured out ways to make sure that they are collecting the right lichen. The species of tree on which the lichen is growing<ref name="Turner1977" /><ref name="Spier1938" /><ref name="Ray1932">Ray, V. F. 1932. The Sanpoil and Nespelem: Salishan peoples of northeasternnorth-eastern Washington. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology '''5'''.</ref> and the general location of that tree<ref name="Turner1980" /><ref name="Marshall1977">Marshall, A. G. 1977. Nez Perce Social Groups: An Ecological Interpretation. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Anthropology: Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA.</ref> are both thought to be important factors for deciding if it is the right type of lichen to eat, but not everyone agrees on which locations and tree species are better. Many people taste the lichen first to make sure that it isn't bitter,<ref name="Turner1980" /><ref name="Palmer1975">Palmer, G. 1975. Shuswap Indian Ethnobotany. Syesis '''8''': 29-81.</ref> and some people choose the lichens that are darker coloured.<ref name="Turney-High1937" />

It is very important that wila is properly cleaned.<ref name="Wilkes1845" /><ref name="de Smet1847" /><ref name="Dawson1891" /><ref name="Stubbs1966" /><ref name="Hart1976" /><ref name="Turner1980" /><ref name="Turner1990" /><ref name="Thompson1784-1812">Thompson, D. 1784-1812. ''David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America, 1784-1812''. Prepared for publication by J. B. Tyrrell in 1916. Toronto, Champlain Society.</ref><ref name="Morice1894">Morice, R. A. G. 1894. Notes archaeological, industrial, and sociological on the western Dénés with on ethnographical sketch of the same. Transactions of the Canadian Institute '''4'''(7).</ref><ref name="Douglas1914">Douglas, D. 1914. ''Journal kept by David Douglas during his travels in North America 1823-1827, together with a particular description of thirty-three species of American oaks and eighteen species of Pinus, with appendices containing a list of the plants introduced by Douglas and an account of his death in 1834. Published under the direction of the Royal Horticultural Society. EdittedEdited by W. Wilks and H. R. Hutchinson.''. Toronto, Champlain Society.</ref><ref name="Spier1930">Spier, L. and E. Sapir. 1930. Wishram ethnography. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology '''3'''(3): 151-300.</ref> It should first be picked through by hand to remove twigs, dirt, other lichens, sap, and other contaminants. Then it is usually soaked several hours to overnight in water, often in running water. It is sometimes worked with hands, or pounded with a paddle-shaped tool while being soaked. This process of cleaning the wila is called '''''kálka''''' in the Secwepemc language, and likely helps to remove the toxin vulpinic acid, which is slightly water-soluble.<ref name="Lauterwein1995">Lauterwein, M., M. Oethinger, K. Belsner, T. Peters and R. Marre. 1995. ''In vitro'' activities of the lichen secondary metabolites vulpinic acid, (+)-usnic acid, and (-)-usnic acid against aerobic and anaerobic microorganismsmicro-organisms. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy '''39'''(11): 2541-2543.</ref>

After being cleaned, the wila is traditionally cooked in a pit.<ref name="Wilkes1845" /><ref name="Turner1977" /><ref name="de Smet1847" /><ref name="Dawson1891" /><ref name="Teit1900" /><ref name="Teit1928" /><ref name="Mourning Dove1933" /><ref name="Spier1938" /><ref name="Stubbs1966" /><ref name="Hart1976" /><ref name="Turney-High1937" /><ref name="Turner1980" /><ref name="Turner1990" /><ref name="Ray1932" /><ref name="Marshall1977" /><ref name="Palmer1975" /><ref name="Douglas1914" /><ref name="Spier1930" /><ref name="Harmon1800-1816">Harmon, D. W. 1800-1816. ''A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America Between the 47th and 58th Degrees of North Latitude, Extending from Montreal Nearly to the Pacific, a Distance of About 5,000 Miles, Including an Account of the Principal Occurrences During a Residence of Nineteen Years in Different Parts of the Country.'' Toronto, Courier Press, Limited (1911).</ref><ref name="Morse1822">Morse, J. 1822. ''A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States, on Indian Affairs, Comprising a Narrative of a Tour Preformed in the Summer of 1820, Under a Commission from the President of the United States, for the Purposes of Ascertaining, for the Use of the Government, the Actual State of the Indian Tribes in Our Country''. Washington, D. C., Davis & Force.</ref><ref name="Parry1871">Parry, C. C. 1871. Food products of the North American Indians. Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1870 [Washington](8): 404-428.</ref><ref name="Chamberlain1892">Chamberlain, A. F. 1892. Report on the Kootenay Indians of SoutheasternSouth-eastern British Columbia. Eighth Report on the NorthwesternNorth-western Tribes of Canada. British Association for the Advancement of Science, EdinberghEdinburgh Meeting: 545-615.</ref><ref name="Gabriel1954">Gabriel, L. and H. E. White. 1954. Food and medicines of the Okanakanes. (Compiled by Hester White). Report of the Okanagan Historical Society of Vernon, British Columbia '''18''': 24-29.</ref><ref name="Keddie1988">Keddie, G. 1988. The Kootenay lichen pounder. The Midden '''20'''(1): 6-9.</ref><ref name="Turner1993">Turner, N. J. and A. Davis. 1993. "When everything was scarce": The role of plants as famine foods in northwesternnorth-western North America. Journal of Ethnobiology '''13'''(2): 171-201.</ref> The pit is traditionally quite large, 1 to 3 m across and 60 to 90&nbsp;cm deep. A fire is lit in the pit, and numerous rocks are heated up on the fire until they are very hot. Some people sprinkle some dirt over the rocks after they have been heated up. Then a thick layer of wet vegetation (perhaps moss, fern fronds, skunk cabbage leaves, bark, grass, or conifer needles) is used to cover the rocks and line the pit. The wila is piled on top of this vegetation, almost always with layers of root vegetables or other food. The lichen is then covered with more wet vegetation. Often a barrier of large leaves, bark, reed mats, or burlap sacks is placed on top of all the vegetation to stop any detritisdetritus from falling into the food. The entire thing is then covered over with a layer of dirt.