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==Terminology==
Although the concepts of "telecommuting" and "telework" are closely related, there is a difference between the two. All types of technology-assisted work conducted outside a centrally located work space (including work undertaken in the home, outside calls, etc.) are regarded as telework. Telecommuters often maintain a traditional office and usually work from an alternative work site from 1 to 3 days a week.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hill | first1 = J. E. | last2 = Miller | first2 = B. C. | last3 = Weiner | first3 = S. P. | last4 = Colihan | first4 = J. | year = 1998 | title = Influences of the virtual office on aspects of work and work/life balance | url = | journal = Personnel Psychology | volume = 51 | issue = 3| pages = 667–683 | doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.1998.tb00256.x| title-link = work/life balance }}</ref> Telecommuting refers more specifically to work undertaken at a location that reduces commuting time. These locations can be inside the home or at some other remote workplace, which is facilitated through a broadband connection, computer or phone lines,<ref name=ellison2004>{{citation
|last=Ellison |first=Nicole B. |title=Telework and Social Change: how technology is reshaping the boundaries between home and work |year=2004 |page=18 |oclc=57435712 |isbn=9780313051715 |publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Praeger]] |location=[[Westport, Connecticut]] }}</ref> or any other electronic media used to interact and communicate.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 name="Gaj" Gajendran | first1 = R. S. | last2 = Harrison | first2 = D. A. | year = 2007 | title = The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences | url = | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 92 | issue = 6| pages = 1524–1541 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1524| pmid = 18020794 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.335.257 }}</ref> As a broader concept than telecommuting, telework has four dimensions in its definitional framework: work location, that can be anywhere outside a [[Centralisation|centralized]] organizational work place; usage of [[Information and communications technology|ICTs]] (information and communication technologies) as technical support for telework; time distribution, referring to the amount of time replaced in the traditional workplace; and the diversity of employment relationships between employer and employee, ranging from contract work to traditional full-time employment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=R. Kelly Garrett|author2=James N. Danziger |title=Which Telework? Defining and Testing a Taxonomy of Technology-Mediated Work at a Distance|journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=25 |pages=27–47 |doi=10.1177/0894439306293819 |year=2007 }}</ref>
A person who telecommutes is known as a "telecommuter", "teleworker", and sometimes as a "home-sourced", or "work-at-home" employee. A telecommuter is also called a "telecommuting specialist", as a designation and in a professional context. Many telecommuters work from home, while others, sometimes called "nomadic workers" work at coffee shops or other locations. The terms "telecommuting" and "telework" were coined by Jack Nilles in 1973.<ref>{{citation
==Statistics==
{{as of|2012}}, estimates suggest that over fifty million U.S. workers (about 40% of the working population) could work from home at least part of the time,<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Matthews |first=H. Scott |author2=Eric Williams |title=Telework Adoption and Energy Use in Building and Transport Sectors in the United States and Japan |journal=J. Infrastruct. Syst. |date=February 28, 2012 |volume=SPECIAL ISSUE: SUSTAINABILITY OF TRANSPORTATION AND OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS |issue=11 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0342(2005)11:1(21) |url=http://ascelibrary.org/action/showAbstract?page=21&volume=11&issue=1&journalCode=jitse4 |issn=1076-0342 }}</ref> but in 2008 only 2.5 million employees, excluding the self-employed, considered their home to be their primary place of business.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Many People Telecommute? |url=http://undress4success.com/research/people-telecommute/ |work=Telework Research Network |publisher=Telework Research Network |accessdate=August 11, 2012 |author=Consumer Electronics Association |date=July 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110306155430/http://undress4success.com/research/people-telecommute/ |archivedate=March 6, 2011 |author-link=Consumer Electronics Association }}</ref> The number of employees reported to have worked from their home "on their primary job" in 2010 has been reported as 9.4 million (6.6% of the workforce), though, this number might include the self-employed.<ref name=wessel2012>{{Cite newspaper
|author=David Wessel |date=December 20, 2012 |title=Out of the Office but Still on the Job |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]
|page=A4 |format=paper }}</ref> As of 2017, roughly 3.7 million employees—2.8% of the workforce—work from home at least half the time, Global Analytics Workplace reports.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://globalworkplaceanalytics.com/telecommuting-statistics|title=Latest Telecommuting Statistics
|date=June 2017 |website=Global Workplace Analytics |access-date=2017-11-27}}</ref> Very few companies employ large numbers of home-based full-time staff.{{citation needed |date=March 2013}} The [[call center industry]] is one notable exception: several U.S. call centers employ thousands of home-based workers. For many employees, the option to work from home is available as an employee benefit but most participants only do so a fraction of the time.<ref>{{cite book
==Job characteristic theory==
Some of the potential benefits and drawbacks of telecommuting can be explained by [[job characteristic theory]], which proposes that the traits and tasks of the job itself affect employees’ work attitudes and behavior.<ref name="Oldham 2005">Oldham, G. R., & Hackman, J. R. (2005). How job characteristics theory happened. In The Oxford handbook of management theory: The process of theory development, 151-170.</ref> If five characteristics of a job are present (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback), then the employee in that job will experience more internal work motivation, satisfaction with personal growth opportunities, general job satisfaction, higher job performance, and lower absenteeism and turnover.<ref name ="Oldham 2005"/><ref name=Hackman1971>{{cite journal | last1 = Hackman | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Lawler | first2 = E. E. | year = 1971 | title = Employee reactions to job characteristics | url = | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 55 | issue = 3| pages = 259–286 | doi = 10.1037/h0031152 }}</ref> Many studies have provided evidence that job characteristics influence employees’ behaviors and attitudes.<ref name= "Fried">{{cite journal | last1 = Fried | first1 = Y. | last2 = Ferris | first2 = G. R. | year = 1987 | title = The validity of the job characteristics model: A review and meta-analysis | url = | journal = Personnel Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 287–322 | doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00605.x}}</ref> Additionally, job characteristics can interact with individual differences to impact employee attitudes and behavior.<ref name="Hackman1971"/><ref name="Hackman1976">Hackman,{{cite Jjournal|doi=10. R., & Oldham, G. R. 1016/0030-5073(197676). 90016-7|title=Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory|year=1976|last1=Hackman|first1=J.Richard|last2=Oldham|first2=Greg R.|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, |volume=16(|issue=2), 250-279. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7|pages=250–279}}</ref> Of these five job characteristics, telework specifically changes autonomy and feedback compared to face-to-face work and can thus influence employees’ behaviors and attitudes. According to Job Characteristics Theory, changes in autonomy and feedback influence work behaviors and attitudes more than a change in skill variety, task identity, or task significance.<ref name ="Oldham 2005"/>
===Autonomy===
Autonomy influences experienced responsibility such that if the job provides freedom, independence, and scheduling flexibility, the individual should feel responsible for his or her work outcomes. Telework provides flexibility in scheduling and freedom because being outside the office gives the worker more choices. Teleworkers do not have to stick to office routines and can shift work to different times of day.<ref name="Sardes">Sardeshmukh,{{cite Sjournal|doi=10. R1111/j., Sharma D1468-005X., & Golden T2012. (2012) 00284.x|title=Impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement: A job demands and job resources model|year=2012|last1=Sardeshmukh|first1=Shruti R.|last2=Sharma|first2=Dheeraj|last3=Golden|first3=Timothy D.|journal=New Technology, Work and Employment, |volume=27(|issue=3), 193- 207. doi:10.1111/j.1468-005X.2012.00284.x"|pages=193–207}}</ref> Telework allows employees the freedom to choose where they work, when they work and even what they wear to work to allow their best work.<ref name="Gaj">Gajendran,{{cite Rjournal|doi=10. S1037/0021-9010., & Harrison, D92. A6. (2007). 1524|pmid=18020794|title=The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: AnalysisMeta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences|year=2007|last1=Gajendran|first1=Ravi S.|last2=Harrison|first2=David A.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology, |volume=92(|issue=6), 1524-1541."|pages=1524–1541}}</ref> Teleworkers may experience more responsibility to the extent that they feel in control and accountable for their work.<ref>Hackman,{{cite Jjournal|doi=10. R., & Oldham, G. R. 1016/0030-5073(197676). 90016-7|title=Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory|year=1976|last1=Hackman|first1=J.Richard|last2=Oldham|first2=Greg R.|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, |volume=16(|issue=2), 250-279. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7 "|pages=250–279}}</ref>
The autonomy of telework allows for lower work-family conflict.<ref name="Rau">Rau,{{cite Bjournal|doi=10. L1111/j., & Hyland, M1744-6570. A2002. Mtb00105. (2002). x|title=Role conflictConflict and flexibleFlexible workWork arrangementsArrangements: The effectsEffects on applicantApplicant attractionAttraction|year=2002|last1=Rau|first1=Barbara L.|last2=Hyland|first2=Mary Anne M.|journal=Personnel Psychology, |volume=55(1), 111-136."|pages=111–136}}</ref> Teleworking provides the freedom to arrange work to avoid family conflicts. Increased control over life demands<ref name="Golden 2006"/> is one of its main attractions. The level of autonomy in telework felt by the employee depends on a variety of factors, including scheduling flexibility and the household size.<ref name="Golden 2006">{{cite journal | last1 = Golden | first1 = T. D. | last2 = Veiga | first2 = J. F. | last3 = Simsek | first3 = Z. | year = 2006 | title = Telecommuting's differential impact on work–family conflict: Is there no place like home? | url = | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 91 | issue = 6| pages = 1340–1350 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1340| pmid = 17100488 }}</ref> In addition to reducing work-family conflict, conflicts with activities are also reduced. Increased and fewer time restrictions freedom allow workers to participate more in recreational activities, whether social or physical.<ref name= "Gaj"/>
===Feedback===
The job characteristic dimension, feedback, increases employees' knowledge of results. Feedback refers to the degree that an individual receives direct and clear information about his or her performance related to work activities.<ref name="Hackman1971"/> Feedback is particularly important so that the employees continuously learn about how they are performing.<ref name="Hackman1976"/> Electronic communication provides fewer cues for teleworkers and thus, they may have more difficulties interpreting and gaining information, and subsequently, receiving feedback.<ref name="Sardes"/> When a worker is not in the office, there is limited information and greater ambiguity, such as in assignments and expectations.<ref name="Golden11">Golden,{{cite Tjournal|doi=10. D., & Fromen, A. (2011). 1177/0018726711418387|title=Does it matter where your manager works? Comparing managerial work mode (traditionalTraditional, telework, virtual) across subordinate work experiences and outcomes|year=2011|last1=Golden|first1=Timothy D. |last2=Fromen|first2=Allan|journal=Human Relations, |volume=64(|issue=11), 1451-1475.|pages=1451–1475}}</ref> Role ambiguity, when situations have unclear expectations as to what the worker is to do,<ref name="Sonnetag">Sonnentag, S. & Frese, M. (2003). Stress in organizations. In I. B. Weiner (Series Ed.) & W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. J. Klimoski (Vol. Eds.) Handbook of Psychology: Vol. 12. Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 453-491). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.</ref> may result in greater conflict, frustration, and exhaustion.<ref name="Sardes"/>
Communication personalized for individual needs is important for feedback interactions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fritz | first1 = M. B. W. | last2 = Narasimhan | first2 = S. | last3 = Rhee | first3 = H. S. | year = 1998 | title = Communication and coordination in the virtual office | url = | journal = Journal of Management Information Systems | volume = 14 | issue = 4| pages = 7–28 | doi=10.1080/07421222.1998.11518184}}</ref> People differ in their need for communication and their level of social connectedness to their environment, partially because of personality and temperament differences.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pickett | first1 = C. L. | year = 2004 | title = Getting a cue: The need to belong and enhanced sensitivity to social cues | url = | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 30 | issue = 9| pages = 1095–107 | doi=10.1177/0146167203262085| pmid = 15359014 }}</ref> Although the level of communication may decrease for teleworkers, satisfaction with this level of communication can be higher in some samples, like those who are more tenured and have functional instead of social relationships.<ref name="Akkirman"/> Feedback and communication can also be affected by a manager's location. The clarity, speed of response, richness of the communication, frequency, and quality of the feedback are often reduced when managers telework.<ref name="Golden11"/>
===Skill variety, task identity, and task significance===
Three of the five job attributes: skill variety, task identity, and task significance, influence how much employees think their jobs are meaningful.<ref name="Hackman1976"/> Skill variety is the degree that a job requires a variety of activities and skills to complete the task. An increase in skill variety is thought to increase the challenge of the job. Increasing the challenge of the job increases the individual's experienced meaningfulness, how much the individual cares about work, and finds it worthwhile.<ref name ="Oldham 2005"/><ref name="Hackman1976"/> Telework may not directly affect skill variety and task meaningfulness for the individual compared to when he or she worked in an office; however, skill variety and meaningfulness of individual tasks can increase when working in a group. If the work done at home is focused on the individual rather than the team, there may be fewer opportunities to use a variety of skills.<ref name="Shamir">Shamir,{{cite Bjournal|doi=10., & Salomon, I5465/amr. (1985). 4278957|title=Work-atAt-homeHome and the qualityQuality of working life.Working Life|year=1985|last1=Shamir|first1=Boas|last2=Salomon|first2=Ilan|journal=Academy of Management Review, |volume=10(|issue=3), 455-464.|pages=455–464}}</ref>
Task identity is the degree that the individual sees work from beginning to end or completes an identifiable or whole piece of work rather than only a small piece. Task significance is the degree that the individual feels his or her work has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people within the organization or outside the organization.<ref name="Hackman1976"/><ref name="Shamir"/> Telework may not change the job characteristics of skill variety, task identity, and task significance compared to working in an office; however, the presence of these characteristics will influence teleworkers’ work outcomes and attitudes.
==Other theories==
Telecommuting is a new work situation with a flexible structure that makes it different from traditional work environments<ref name="Torraco" >Torraco,{{cite Rjournal|doi=10. J1002/hrdq. (2005). 1125|title=Work design theory: A review and critique with implications for human resource development|year=2005|last1=Torraco|first1=Richard J. |journal=Human Resource Development Quarterly, |volume=16(1), 85-109.|pages=85–109}}</ref> Various job design theories, in addition to job characteristics theory, can help explain the differences between telecommuting and traditional job settings.
===Motivator-hygiene theory===
===Social information processing ===
[[Social information processing]] suggests that individuals give meaning to job characteristics.<ref name="Salancik">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/2392563|jstor=2392563|title=A Social Information Processing Approach to Job Attitudes and taskTask designDesign|year=1978|last1=Salancik|first1=Gerald R. |author-link1=Salancik, G. R.|last2=Pfeffer|first2=Jeffrey|journal=Administrative Science Quarterly , |volume=23 (|issue=2 ), |pages=224-253 .}}</ref> Individuals have the ability to construct their own perception of the environment by interpreting social cues.<ref name="Morgeson03">Morgeson, F.P., & Campion, M.A. (2003). Work design. In W. Bornman, D. Ilgen & R. Klimoksi (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol. 12, 423-452. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.</ref> This social information comes from overt statements from coworkers, cognitive evaluations of the job or task dimensions, and previous behaviors. This social context can affect individuals’ beliefs about the nature of the job, the expectations for individual behavior, and the potential consequences of behavior, especially in uncertain situations.<ref name="Morgeson03"/> In telework, there are fewer social cues because social exchange and personalized communication takes longer to process in computer-mediated communication than face-to-face interactions.<ref name="Waither"> Walther,{{cite Jjournal|doi=10. B. (1992). 1177/009365092019001003|title=Interpersonal effectsEffects in computerComputer- mediatedMediated interaction:Interaction|year=1992|last1=Walther|first1=Joseph A relational perspectiveB. |journal=Communication Research , |volume=19 (1), 52-90.doi:10.1177/009365092019001003|pages=52–90}}</ref> ▼
[[Social information processing]] suggests that individuals give meaning to job characteristics.<ref name="Salancik">[[Salancik, G. R.]], & Pfeffer, J. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes
▲and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23(2), 224-253.</ref> Individuals have the ability to construct their own perception of the environment by interpreting social cues.<ref name="Morgeson03">Morgeson, F.P., & Campion, M.A. (2003). Work design. In W. Bornman, D. Ilgen & R. Klimoksi (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol. 12, 423-452. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.</ref> This social information comes from overt statements from coworkers, cognitive evaluations of the job or task dimensions, and previous behaviors. This social context can affect individuals’ beliefs about the nature of the job, the expectations for individual behavior, and the potential consequences of behavior, especially in uncertain situations.<ref name="Morgeson03"/> In telework, there are fewer social cues because social exchange and personalized communication takes longer to process in computer-mediated communication than face-to-face interactions.<ref name="Waither">Walther, J. B. (1992). Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A relational perspective. Communication Research, 19(1), 52-90.doi:10.1177/009365092019001003</ref>
===Sociotechnical systems theory===
[[Sociotechnical system]]s (STS) theory explains the interaction between social and technological factors. STS examines the relationships between people, technology, and the work environment, in order to design work in a way that enhances job satisfaction and increases productivity.<ref name="Torraco"/> Originally developed to explain the paradox of improved technology but decreased productivity,<ref name="Trist">Trist,{{cite Ejournal|doi=10. L., & Bamforth, K. W. (1951). 1177/001872675100400101|title=Some socialSocial and psychologicalPsychological consequencesConsequences of the Longwall Method. Humanof Relations, 4, 3Coal-38Getting|year=1951|last1=Trist|first1=E. doi:10L.1177/001872675100400101|last2=Bamforth|first2=K. W.|journal=Human Relations|volume=4|pages=3–38}}</ref> the theory can be applied to the design of telework. One of the principles of STS is minimal critical specification.<ref name="Cherns">{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/001872678704000303|title=Principles of Sociotechnical Design Revisted|year=1987|last1=Cherns|first1=Albert|journal=Human Relations|volume=40|issue=3|pages=153–161}}</ref> This principle states that, Aunless absolutely essential, there should be minimal specification of objectives and how to do tasks in order to avoid closing options or inhibiting effective actions. (1987)Telecommuting provides teleworkers with the freedom to decide how and when to do their tasks.<ref Principlesname="Gaj"/> ofSimilarly, sociotechnicalteleworkers designhave revisitedthe responsibility to use their equipment and resources to carry out their responsibilities. HumanThis Relationsincrease in responsibility for their work also increases their power,<ref 40(3)name="Cherns"/> supporting the idea that teleworking is a privilege and in some companies, 153-considered a promotion.<ref name="Morganson, V. J. 2010"/>
161. doi:10.1177/001872678704000303</ref> This principle states that, unless absolutely essential, there should be minimal specification of objectives and how to do tasks in order to avoid closing options or inhibiting effective actions. Telecommuting provides teleworkers with the freedom to decide how and when to do their tasks.<ref name="Gaj"/> Similarly, teleworkers have the responsibility to use their equipment and resources to carry out their responsibilities. This increase in responsibility for their work also increases their power,<ref name="Cherns"/> supporting the idea that teleworking is a privilege and in some companies, considered a promotion.<ref name="Morganson, V. J. 2010"/>
===Adaptive structural theory===
Adaptive structuration theory studies variations in organizations as new technologies are introduced<ref name="DeSanctis">{{cite journal|doi=10. 1287/orsc.5.2.121|title=Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory|year=1994|last1=Desanctis|first1=Gerardine|last2=Poole|first2=Marshall Scott|journal=Organization Science , |volume=5 (|issue=2 ), 121-147.|pages=121–147}}</ref> Adaptive structural theory proposes that structures (general rules and resources offered by the technology) can differ from structuration (how people actually use these rules and resources).<ref name="Torraco"/> There is an interplay between the intended use of technology and the way that people use the technology. Telecommuting provides a social structure that enables and constrains certain interactions.<ref name="Hill09"> Hill,{{cite Njournal|doi=10. S1016/j. , Bartol, Kobhdp. M2008. , Tesluk, P. E., & Langa, G. A. (2009)10. 002|title=Organizational context and face-to-face interaction: Influences on the development of trust and collaborative behaviors in computer-mediated groups |year=2009|last1=Hill|first1=N. Sharon|last2=Bartol|first2=Kathryn M.|last3=Tesluk|first3=Paul E.|last4=Langa|first4=Gosia A.|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , |volume=108 (|issue=2 ), 187-201.|pages=187–201}}</ref> For instance, in office settings, the norm may be to interact with others face-to-face. To accomplish interpersonal exchange in telecommuting, other forms of interaction need to be used. AST suggests that when technologies are used over time, the rules and resources for social interactions will change.<ref name="DeSanctis"/> Teleworking may alter traditional work practices,<ref name="Torraco"/> such as switching from primarily face-to-face communication to electronic communication. ▼Adaptive structuration theory studies variations in organizations as new technologies are introduced<ref name="DeSanctis">[[Gerardine DeSanctis|DeSanctis, G.]], & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use:
▲Adaptive structuration theory. Organization Science, 5(2), 121-147.</ref> Adaptive structural theory proposes that structures (general rules and resources offered by the technology) can differ from structuration (how people actually use these rules and resources).<ref name="Torraco"/> There is an interplay between the intended use of technology and the way that people use the technology. Telecommuting provides a social structure that enables and constrains certain interactions.<ref name="Hill09">Hill, N. S., Bartol, K. M., Tesluk, P. E., & Langa, G. A. (2009). Organizational context and face-to-face interaction: Influences on the development of trust and collaborative behaviors in computer-mediated groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(2), 187-201.</ref> For instance, in office settings, the norm may be to interact with others face-to-face. To accomplish interpersonal exchange in telecommuting, other forms of interaction need to be used. AST suggests that when technologies are used over time, the rules and resources for social interactions will change.<ref name="DeSanctis"/> Teleworking may alter traditional work practices,<ref name="Torraco"/> such as switching from primarily face-to-face communication to electronic communication.
==Potential benefits==
===Job attitudes===
According to the [[job characteristic theory]], the relationship between characteristics of the job and [[job satisfaction]] was moderately strong.<ref name="Loher">{{cite journal | last1 = Loher | first1 = B. T. | last2 = Noe | first2 = R. A. | last3 = Moeller | first3 = N. L. | last4 = Fitzgerald | first4 = M. P. | year = 1985 | title = A meta-analysis of the relation of job characteristics to job satisfaction | url = | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 70 | issue = 2| pages = 280–289 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.70.2.280}}</ref> Of the five task characteristics, autonomy has a strong relationship with job satisfaction such that greater autonomy leads to greater job satisfaction.<ref name="Loher"/> Teleworkers may have increased satisfaction due to the flexibility and autonomy their jobs provide. Teleworkers were found to have higher satisfaction than office based workers.<ref name="Bailey"/><ref name="Morganson, V. J. 2010"/> It was found that autonomy increased teleworkers' satisfaction by reducing work-family conflicts,<ref name="Golden 2006"/><ref name= "MauryMaruy">Maruyama,{{cite Tjournal|doi=10.1108/00483481211229375|title=From &anxiety to assurance: Concerns and outcomes of telework|year=2012|last1=Maruyama|first1=Takao|last2=Tietze,|first2=Susanne|journal=Personnel SReview|volume=41|issue=4|pages=450–469}}</ref> especially when workers were allowed to work outside traditional work hours and be more flexible for family purposes.<ref (2012)name="Golden11"/> Additionally, autonomy explained an increase in [[employee engagement]] when the amount of time spent teleworking increased.<ref Fromname="Sardes"/> anxiety Furthermore, a study from [[FlexJobs]] that surveyed over 3000 people found that 81 percent of respondents also said they would be more loyal to assurance:their concernsemployers andif outcomesthey had flexible work options.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Reynolds|first1=Brie|title=Survey: Only 7% of Workers Say They're Most Productive in the Office|url=https://www.flexjobs.com/blog/post/survey-workers-most-productive-in-the-office|website=FlexJobs.com|date=August 26, 2016}}</ref>
telework, Personnel Review, 41(4), 450-469.</ref> especially when workers were allowed to work outside traditional work hours and be more flexible for family purposes.<ref name="Golden11"/> Additionally, autonomy explained an increase in [[employee engagement]] when the amount of time spent teleworking increased.<ref name="Sardes"/> Furthermore, a study from [[FlexJobs]] that surveyed over 3000 people found that 81 percent of respondents also said they would be more loyal to their employers if they had flexible work options.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Reynolds|first1=Brie|title=Survey: Only 7% of Workers Say They're Most Productive in the Office|url=https://www.flexjobs.com/blog/post/survey-workers-most-productive-in-the-office|website=FlexJobs.com|date=August 26, 2016}}</ref>
===Productivity and employee benefits===
===Advantages and disadvantages meta-analysis===
A meta-analysis of 46 studies of telecommuting involving 12,833 employees conducted by Ravi Gajendran and David A. Harrison in the ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', published by the American Psychological Association (APA), found that telecommuting has largely positive consequences for employees and employers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2007/11/telecommuting.aspx|title=APA Press Release "Telecommuting has Mostly Positive Consequences for Employees and Employers, Say Researchers"
|author= Gajendran and HarrisonAPA |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=November 19, 2007 |accessdate=November 6, 2016}}</ref ><ref name="Gaj" /> In their meta-analytic study, Gajendran and Harrison found that telecommuting had modest but beneficial effects on employees' job satisfaction, perceived autonomy, stress levels, manager-rated job performance, and (lower) work-family conflict. Telecommuting also reduces turnover intent, or the intention to quit one's job. Increased job satisfaction, decreased turnover intent and role stress related to telecommuting partly because of a decrease in work-family conflict. Additionally, the increase in autonomy from teleworking in turn increases job satisfaction.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} ▼|author=APA |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=November 19, 2007 |accessdate=November 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/apl/92/6/1524
|title=The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences
▲|author=Gajendran and Harrison |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=November 19, 2007 |accessdate=November 6, 2016}}</ref> In their meta-analytic study, Gajendran and Harrison found that telecommuting had modest but beneficial effects on employees' job satisfaction, perceived autonomy, stress levels, manager-rated job performance, and (lower) work-family conflict. Telecommuting also reduces turnover intent, or the intention to quit one's job. Increased job satisfaction, decreased turnover intent and role stress related to telecommuting partly because of a decrease in work-family conflict. Additionally, the increase in autonomy from teleworking in turn increases job satisfaction.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}
Although a number of scholars and managers<ref>McCloskey,{{cite Djournal|doi=10. W4018/irmj., & Igbaria, M. (2003). 2003040102|title=Does “out"Out of sight”Sight" meanMean “out"Out of mind”Mind"? An empiricalEmpirical investigationInvestigation of the careerCareer advancementAdvancement prospectsProspects of telecommutersTelecommuters|year=2003|last1=McCloskey|first1=Donna W. |last2=Igbaria|first2=Magid|journal=Information Resources Management Journal, |volume=16(|issue=2), |pages=19–34.}}</ref> had previously expressed fears that employee careers might suffer and workplace relationships might be damaged because of telecommuting, the meta-analysis found that there are no generally detrimental effects on the quality of workplace relationships and career outcomes. Telecommuting actually was found to positively affect employee-supervisor relations and the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intent was in part due to supervisor relationship quality. Only high-intensity telecommuting (where employees work from home for more than 2.5 days a week) harmed employee relationships with co-workers, even though it did reduce work-family conflict.
==Potential drawbacks and concerns==
Skill variety has the strongest relationship with internal [[work motivation]].<ref name="Fried"/> Jobs that allow workers to use a variety of skills increase workers’ internal work motivation. If teleworkers are limited in teamwork opportunities and have fewer opportunities to use a variety of skills,<ref name="Shamir"/> they may have lower internal motivation towards their work. Also, perceived social isolation can lead to less motivation.<ref name="Maruy">Maruyama, T. & Tietze, S. (2012). From anxiety to assurance: concerns and outcomes of telework, Personnel Review, 41(4), 450-469.</ref> It can be argued that without a work climate or manager nearby, the ability to motivate oneself is even more important when telecommuting than when working in an office. Though working in an office has its distractions, it is often argued that telecommuting involves even greater distractions. According to one study, children are ranked as the number one distractions, followed by spouses, pets, neighbors, and solicitors. The lack of proper tools and facilities also serves as a major distraction,<ref>{{cite web|title=3 Reasons Why Working From Home Can be Unproductive|url=http://www.corporatesuites.com/3-reasons-working-home-can-unproductive/|publisher=Corporate Suites|accessdate=September 4, 2015}}</ref> though this can be mitigated by using short-term [[coworking]] rental facilities.
Face-to-face interactions increase interpersonal contact, connectedness, and trust<ref name="Golden 2008"/> Therefore, 54% of teleworkers thought they lost out on social interaction and 52.5% felt they lost out on professional interaction in a 2012 study.<ref name="Maruy"/> Teleworking can hurt working relationships between the teleworker and their coworkers, especially if their coworkers do not telework. Coworkers who do not telework can feel resentful and jealous because they may consider it unfair if they are not allowed to telework as well.<ref name="Gaj"/><ref name="Morganson, V. J. 2010"/> However, despite fewer interpersonal actions and professional isolation,<ref name="Golden 2008"/> a meta-analysis of telecommuting did not find support for negative telecommuter-coworker relationships or telecommuter-supervisor relationships.<ref name="Gaj"/> Employers' largest concerns about telecommuting are fear of loss of control; 75% of managers say they trust their employees, but a third say they would like to be able to see them, "just to be sure".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://undress4success.com/research/pros-cons/|title=Lister, Kate, Undress For Success--The Naked Truth About Making Money at Home, (John Wiley & Sons 2009, {{Text|ISBN}} 978-0-470-38332-2) quoting Management-Issues.com (July 30, 2007) survey|accessdate=2012-05-15}}</ref>
Telework centers are offices that are generally set up close to a majority of people who might otherwise drive or take [[public transit]]. They usually feature the full complement of office equipment and a high-speed Internet connection for maximum [[productivity]]. Some feature support staff, including receptionists or administrators. For example, a number of telework centers have been set up around the [[Washington Metropolitan Area]]: 7 in Maryland, 8 in Virginia, 3 in Washington, D.C. and 1 in West Virginia. Telework centers allow people to reduce their commute yet still work in a traditional office setting. Some telework centers are set up by individual companies while others are established by independent organizations for use by many organizations. Telework centers are attractive to people who do not have the space or inclination to work from home. They offer employers the ability to maintain a more formal structure for their workforce.
These work arrangements are more likely to become more popular with current trends towards greater customization of services and virtual organizing. Distributed work offers great potential for firms to reduce costs, enhance competitive advantage and agility, access a greater variety of scarce talents, and improve employee flexibility, effectiveness and productivity.<ref>Venkatesh,{{cite Ajournal|doi=10. and Vitalari, N1287/mnsc. P38., "12.1687|title=An Emerging Distributed Work Arrangement: An Investigation of Computer-Based Supplemental Work at Home",|year=1992|last1=Venkatesh|first1=Alladi|last2=Vitalari|first2=Nicholas ''P.|journal=Management Science'', 1992, |volume=38(|issue=12), pp. 1687-1706.|pages=1687–1706}}</ref><ref>Korte, W. B., "Telework – Potentials, Inceptions, Operations and Likely Future Situations," in W. B. Korte, S. Robinson, and W. J. Steinle (Eds.), ''Telework: Present Situations and Future Development of A New Form of Work Organization'', Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1988.</ref><ref>Sieber, P. "Virtuality as a Strategic Approach for Small and Medium Sized IT Companies to Stay Competitive in a Global Market," in J.I. DeGross, S. Jarvenpaa, and A. Srinivasan (Eds.), ''Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Information Systems'', Cleveland, OH, 1996, pp. 468.</ref><ref>Taylor, W. C., "At VeriFone, It's a Dog's Life (And they Love it)," Fast Company, 1995, 1 (Premiere Issue), pp. 115-121. {{cite web |url=http://www.fastcompany.com/online/01/vfone.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2006-05-16 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019011052/http://www.fastcompany.com/online/01/vfone.html |archivedate=2006-10-19 }}</ref> It has gained in popularity in the West, particularly in Europe. While increasing in importance, distributed work has not yet gained widespread acceptance in Asia.<ref>Sia,{{cite Cjournal|doi=10. L1109/tem., Teo, H2004. H., Tan, B. C. Y., Wei, K. K., "830859|title=Effects of Environmental Uncertainty on Organizational Intention to Adopt Distributed Work Arrangements," ''|year=2004|last1=Sia|first1=Choon-Ling|last2=Teo|first2=Hock-Hai|last3=Tan|first3=B.C.Y.|last4=Wei|first4=Kwok-Kee|journal=IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management'', 2004, |volume=51(|issue=3), pp. 253-267|pages=253–267}}</ref>
===Remote office centers===
|url-status=dead |archive-date=May 3, 2006}}
*{{cite journal
|title=Working at home pays off for firms |journalwebsite=Telecomchoices.org}}
*{{cite journal |author=John P. Mello Jr.
|title=Home-Sourcing'' vs. Offshoring It's not all about price; allowing people to work at home leads to a virtuous cycle of productivity
|journalwebsite=CFO.com |url=http://www.cfo.com/article.cfm/3597944?f=RequiredReading}}
==Further reading==
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