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1956 United States presidential election in Virginia - Wikipedia
Wikipedia

1956 United States presidential election in Virginia

Main article: 1956 United States presidential election

The 1956 United States presidential election in Virginia took place on November 6, 1956. Voters chose twelve representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president. For the previous five decades Virginia had almost completely disenfranchised its black and poor white populations through the use of a cumulative poll tax and literacy tests.[2] So restricted was suffrage in this period that it has been calculated that a third of Virginia's electorate during the first half of the twentieth century comprised state employees and officeholders.[2]

1956 United States presidential election in Virginia
← 1952 November 6, 1956 1960 →
 
Nominee Dwight D. Eisenhower Adlai Stevenson T. Coleman Andrews
Party Republican Democratic Dixiecrat
Home state Pennsylvania[a][1] Illinois Virginia
Running mate Richard Nixon Estes Kefauver Thomas H. Werdel
Electoral vote 12 0 0
Popular vote 386,459 267,760 42,964
Percentage 55.37% 38.36% 6.16%
County Results
President before election

Dwight D. Eisenhower
Republican

Elected President

Dwight D. Eisenhower
Republican

This limited electorate allowed Virginian politics to be controlled for four decades by the Byrd Organization, as progressive "antiorganization" factions were rendered impotent by the inability of almost all their potential electorate to vote.[3] Historical fusion with the "Readjuster" Democrats,[4] defection of substantial proportions of the Northeast-aligned white electorate of the Shenandoah Valley and Southwest Virginia over free silver,[5] and an early move towards a "lily white" Jim Crow party[4] meant Republicans retained a small but permanent number of legislative seats and local offices in the western part of the state.[6]

In 1928, the GOP did carry the state's presidential electoral votes due to anti-Catholicism against Al Smith, but it was 1952 before any real changes occurred. In-migration from the traditionally Republican Northeast[7] turned growing Washington, D.C., and Richmond suburbs Republican not just in presidential elections but in congressional ones as well,[8] although the Republicans made no gains in the state legislature where all their few seats remained in the rural west.

1954 saw Virginia's politics severely jolted by Brown v. Board of Education—one of whose component cases Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, originated from a student protest in the state. Despite calls by Governor Thomas B. Stanley for a "calm" and "dispassionate" response, the Byrd machine recognised that segregation could unite most of Virginia's electorate behind it and avert criticism of its other policies.[9] State representative Howard W. Smith played a major role drafting the "Southern Manifesto",[10] which was signed by Virginia's entire congressional delegation, including its two GOP representatives. Although Eisenhower refused to publicly endorse Brown, the fact that he had appointed Brown author Earl Warren meant that there was substantial anger in the Southside, and as in 1948 a "states' rights" ticket,[11] this time headed by Virginian former Commissioner of Internal Revenue T. Coleman Andrews, was filled and placed on the Virginia ballot in mid-September,[12] when a poll said that 28 percent of likely voters would back a states' rights candidate if on the ballot.[13]

Predictions

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Source Ranking As of
Richmond Times-Dispatch[13] Tossup September 16, 1956
The World-News[14] Likely R October 12, 1956
The Raleigh Register[15] Likely R October 12, 1956
The Philadelphia Inquirer[16] Likely R October 26, 1956
The Sunday Star[17] Tilt D (flip) October 28, 1956
Fort Worth Star-Telegram[18] Tilt D (flip) November 2, 1956
Corpus Christi Times[19] Tossup November 3, 1956

Results

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1956 United States presidential election in Virginia[20]
Party Candidate Votes Percentage Electoral votes
Republican Dwight Eisenhower (inc.) 386,459 55.37% 12
Democratic Adlai Stevenson 267,760 38.36% 0
States' Rights T. Coleman Andrews 42,964 6.16% 0
Social Democratic Darlington Hoopes 444 0.06% 0
Socialist Labor Eric Hass 351 0.05% 0
Totals 697,978 100.00% 12

Results by county or independent city

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County/City[21] Dwight D. Eisenhower
Republican 		Adlai Stevenson
Democratic 		T. Coleman Andrews
States' Rights 		Various candidates
Other parties 		Margin Total votes cast
# % # % # % # % # %
Accomack 2,823 54.25% 2,213 42.52% 162 3.11% 6 0.12% 610 11.73% 5,204
Albemarle 2,508 57.18% 1,412 32.19% 466 10.62% 0 0.00% 1,096 24.99% 4,386
Alexandria 8,633 52.48% 7,451 45.30% 357 2.17% 8 0.05% 1,182 7.18% 16,449
Alleghany 1,135 55.26% 822 40.02% 97 4.72% 0 0.00% 313 15.24% 2,054
Amelia 745 43.11% 403 23.32% 571 33.04% 9 0.52% 174[b] 10.07% 1,728
Amherst 1,529 42.59% 1,933 53.84% 124 3.45% 4 0.11% -404 -11.25% 3,590
Appomattox 853 40.89% 1,079 51.73% 153 7.33% 1 0.05% -226 -10.84% 2,086
Arlington 21,868 55.05% 16,674 41.97% 1,151 2.90% 32 0.08% 5,194 13.08% 39,725
Augusta 3,466 68.07% 1,484 29.14% 139 2.73% 3 0.06% 1,982 38.93% 5,092
Bath 739 58.47% 479 37.90% 45 3.56% 1 0.08% 260 20.57% 1,264
Bedford 3,148 52.07% 2,649 43.81% 241 3.99% 8 0.13% 499 8.26% 6,046
Bland 1,113 57.16% 813 41.76% 20 1.03% 1 0.05% 300 15.40% 1,947
Botetourt 2,280 60.67% 1,377 36.64% 101 2.69% 0 0.00% 903 24.03% 3,758
Bristol 1,794 51.89% 1,645 47.58% 17 0.49% 1 0.03% 149 4.31% 3,457
Brunswick 799 25.28% 1,357 42.94% 996 31.52% 8 0.25% 361[c] 11.42% 3,160
Buchanan 3,191 46.71% 3,616 52.94% 21 0.31% 3 0.04% -425 -6.23% 6,831
Buckingham 751 43.64% 648 37.65% 312 18.13% 10 0.58% 103 5.99% 1,721
Buena Vista 545 60.76% 326 36.34% 24 2.68% 2 0.22% 219 24.42% 897
Campbell 2,827 47.79% 2,674 45.20% 401 6.78% 14 0.24% 153 2.59% 5,916
Caroline 907 46.06% 853 43.32% 202 10.26% 7 0.36% 54 2.74% 1,969
Carroll 4,060 69.66% 1,739 29.84% 24 0.41% 5 0.09% 2,321 39.82% 5,828
Charles City 661 72.08% 174 18.97% 79 8.62% 3 0.33% 487 53.11% 917
Charlotte 791 27.86% 1,431 50.41% 605 21.31% 12 0.42% -640 -22.55% 2,839
Charlottesville 3,746 62.19% 1,783 29.60% 490 8.14% 4 0.07% 1,963 32.59% 6,023
Chesterfield 5,787 53.12% 3,306 30.35% 1,791 16.44% 10 0.09% 2,481 22.77% 10,894
Clarke 785 48.91% 725 45.17% 95 5.92% 0 0.00% 60 3.74% 1,605
Clifton Forge 1,125 61.48% 633 34.59% 71 3.88% 1 0.05% 492 26.89% 1,830
Colonial Heights 1,037 47.74% 956 44.01% 177 8.15% 2 0.09% 81 3.73% 2,172
Covington 1,639 56.34% 1,189 40.87% 79 2.72% 2 0.07% 450 15.47% 2,909
Craig 485 48.84% 501 50.45% 7 0.70% 0 0.00% -16 -1.61% 993
Culpeper 1,502 56.44% 966 36.30% 188 7.07% 5 0.19% 536 20.14% 2,661
Cumberland 566 42.91% 331 25.09% 416 31.54% 6 0.45% 150[b] 11.37% 1,319
Danville 4,561 59.03% 2,409 31.18% 740 9.58% 16 0.21% 2,152 27.85% 7,726
Dickenson 3,444 48.15% 3,695 51.66% 8 0.11% 6 0.08% -251 -3.51% 7,153
Dinwiddie 807 30.71% 1,282 48.78% 524 19.94% 15 0.57% -475 -18.07% 2,628
Essex 597 55.48% 328 30.48% 149 13.85% 2 0.19% 269 25.00% 1,076
Fairfax 20,761 55.71% 15,633 41.95% 862 2.31% 11 0.03% 5,128 13.76% 37,267
Falls Church 1,462 53.13% 1,233 44.80% 55 2.00% 2 0.07% 229 8.33% 2,752
Fauquier 2,112 55.55% 1,567 41.22% 122 3.21% 1 0.03% 545 14.33% 3,802
Floyd 1,970 70.46% 799 28.58% 25 0.89% 2 0.07% 1,171 41.88% 2,796
Fluvanna 734 53.85% 417 30.59% 208 15.26% 4 0.29% 317 23.26% 1,363
Franklin 2,125 48.81% 2,142 49.20% 84 1.93% 3 0.07% -17 -0.39% 4,354
Frederick 1,882 56.01% 1,405 41.82% 71 2.11% 2 0.06% 477 14.19% 3,360
Fredericksburg 1,672 60.25% 934 33.66% 168 6.05% 1 0.04% 738 26.59% 2,775
Galax 761 68.31% 346 31.06% 7 0.63% 0 0.00% 415 37.25% 1,114
Giles 2,270 51.84% 2,016 46.04% 81 1.85% 12 0.27% 254 5.80% 4,379
Gloucester 1,319 57.95% 723 31.77% 223 9.80% 11 0.48% 596 26.18% 2,276
Goochland 748 50.10% 508 34.03% 233 15.61% 4 0.27% 240 16.07% 1,493
Grayson 4,039 62.18% 2,426 37.35% 26 0.40% 5 0.08% 1,613 24.83% 6,496
Greene 539 63.49% 246 28.98% 63 7.42% 1 0.12% 293 34.51% 849
Greensville 724 29.08% 994 39.92% 760 30.52% 12 0.48% 234[c] 9.40% 2,490
Halifax 1,782 30.73% 2,470 42.59% 1,513 26.09% 34 0.59% -688 -11.86% 5,799
Hampton 7,432 57.24% 5,108 39.34% 421 3.24% 22 0.17% 2,324 17.90% 12,983
Hanover 2,272 54.07% 1,109 26.39% 813 19.35% 8 0.19% 1,163 27.68% 4,202
Harrisonburg 2,265 78.29% 571 19.74% 56 1.94% 1 0.03% 1,694 58.55% 2,893
Henrico 12,702 60.20% 5,032 23.85% 3,354 15.89% 13 0.06% 7,670 36.35% 21,101
Henry 2,436 47.75% 2,582 50.61% 75 1.47% 9 0.18% -146 -2.86% 5,102
Highland 633 58.02% 432 39.60% 23 2.11% 3 0.27% 201 18.42% 1,091
Hopewell 1,908 53.91% 1,388 39.22% 235 6.64% 8 0.23% 520 14.69% 3,539
Isle of Wight 1,298 47.08% 1,324 48.02% 131 4.75% 4 0.15% -26 -0.94% 2,757
James City 728 62.54% 312 26.80% 122 10.48% 2 0.17% 416 35.74% 1,164
King and Queen 495 54.64% 289 31.90% 116 12.80% 6 0.66% 206 22.74% 906
King George 655 51.70% 563 44.44% 47 3.71% 2 0.16% 92 7.26% 1,267
King William 887 62.16% 357 25.02% 180 12.61% 3 0.21% 530 37.14% 1,427
Lancaster 1,380 70.66% 373 19.10% 192 9.83% 8 0.41% 1,007 51.56% 1,953
Lee 4,548 54.77% 3,714 44.73% 30 0.36% 12 0.14% 834 10.04% 8,304
Loudoun 2,489 53.41% 1,960 42.06% 205 4.40% 6 0.13% 529 11.35% 4,660
Louisa 1,152 47.43% 795 32.73% 472 19.43% 10 0.41% 357 14.70% 2,429
Lunenburg 580 24.80% 1,111 47.50% 641 27.40% 7 0.30% 470[c] 20.10% 2,339
Lynchburg 6,806 64.81% 3,362 32.01% 329 3.13% 5 0.05% 3,444 32.80% 10,502
Madison 850 56.86% 533 35.65% 111 7.42% 1 0.07% 317 21.21% 1,495
Martinsville 2,125 59.67% 1,368 38.42% 65 1.83% 3 0.08% 757 21.25% 3,561
Mathews 1,018 65.42% 406 26.09% 132 8.48% 0 0.00% 612 39.33% 1,556
Mecklenburg 1,498 33.78% 2,004 45.20% 920 20.75% 12 0.27% -506 -11.42% 4,434
Middlesex 721 58.00% 338 27.19% 180 14.48% 4 0.32% 383 30.81% 1,243
Montgomery 4,598 70.10% 1,848 28.18% 106 1.62% 7 0.11% 2,750 41.92% 6,559
Nansemond 1,753 40.21% 2,492 57.16% 98 2.25% 17 0.39% -739 -16.95% 4,360
Nelson 764 37.20% 1,215 59.15% 73 3.55% 2 0.10% -451 -21.95% 2,054
New Kent 510 57.95% 178 20.23% 189 21.48% 3 0.34% 321[b] 36.47% 880
Newport News 3,779 53.26% 3,069 43.26% 237 3.34% 10 0.14% 710 10.00% 7,095
Norfolk 4,558 41.74% 6,026 55.18% 332 3.04% 4 0.04% -1,468 -13.44% 10,920
Norfolk City 18,650 54.02% 14,571 42.20% 1,285 3.72% 19 0.06% 4,079 11.82% 34,525
Northampton 1,264 51.03% 1,132 45.70% 78 3.15% 3 0.12% 132 5.33% 2,477
Northumberland 1,191 62.68% 428 22.53% 277 14.58% 4 0.21% 763 40.15% 1,900
Norton 684 55.12% 552 44.48% 4 0.32% 1 0.08% 132 10.64% 1,241
Nottoway 1,124 33.76% 1,242 37.31% 961 28.87% 2 0.06% -118 -3.55% 3,329
Orange 1,344 53.55% 794 31.63% 363 14.46% 9 0.36% 550 21.92% 2,510
Page 2,372 62.73% 1,358 35.92% 49 1.30% 2 0.05% 1,014 26.81% 3,781
Patrick 1,345 43.93% 1,677 54.77% 38 1.24% 2 0.07% -332 -10.84% 3,062
Petersburg 3,166 58.10% 1,882 34.54% 395 7.25% 6 0.11% 1,284 23.56% 5,449
Pittsylvania 2,870 36.82% 4,136 53.07% 767 9.84% 21 0.27% -1,266 -16.25% 7,794
Portsmouth 5,390 47.13% 5,683 49.69% 348 3.04% 15 0.13% -293 -2.56% 11,436
Powhatan 729 54.08% 297 22.03% 314 23.29% 8 0.59% 415[b] 30.79% 1,348
Prince Edward 932 31.43% 437 14.74% 1,588 53.56% 8 0.27% -656[b] -22.13% 2,965
Prince George 689 46.24% 642 43.09% 149 10.00% 10 0.67% 47 3.15% 1,490
Princess Anne 4,675 50.52% 4,342 46.93% 227 2.45% 9 0.10% 333 3.59% 9,253
Prince William 2,023 50.96% 1,851 46.62% 95 2.39% 1 0.03% 172 4.34% 3,970
Pulaski 3,517 63.05% 1,994 35.75% 65 1.17% 2 0.04% 1,523 27.30% 5,578
Radford 1,910 62.46% 1,118 36.56% 28 0.92% 2 0.07% 792 25.90% 3,058
Rappahannock 514 47.81% 523 48.65% 35 3.26% 3 0.28% -9 -0.84% 1,075
Richmond 761 67.89% 274 24.44% 85 7.58% 1 0.09% 487 43.45% 1,121
Richmond City 27,367 61.79% 10,758 24.29% 6,136 13.85% 30 0.07% 16,609 37.50% 44,291
Roanoke 7,509 69.83% 2,899 26.96% 342 3.18% 3 0.03% 4,610 42.87% 10,753
Roanoke City 16,708 69.38% 6,751 28.03% 611 2.54% 12 0.05% 9,957 41.35% 24,082
Rockbridge 2,273 66.50% 1,039 30.40% 106 3.10% 0 0.00% 1,234 36.10% 3,418
Rockingham 4,324 71.74% 1,605 26.63% 93 1.54% 5 0.08% 2,719 45.11% 6,027
Russell 3,550 49.14% 3,641 50.40% 25 0.35% 8 0.11% -91 -1.26% 7,224
Scott 5,116 58.44% 3,595 41.07% 36 0.41% 7 0.08% 1,521 17.37% 8,754
Shenandoah 4,164 69.18% 1,769 29.39% 84 1.40% 2 0.03% 2,395 39.79% 6,019
Smyth 4,771 66.23% 2,374 32.95% 56 0.78% 3 0.04% 2,397 33.28% 7,204
South Norfolk 1,521 42.14% 1,871 51.84% 212 5.87% 5 0.14% -350 -9.70% 3,609
Southampton 1,290 35.29% 2,039 55.79% 317 8.67% 9 0.25% -749 -20.50% 3,655
Spotsylvania 1,244 51.94% 993 41.46% 154 6.43% 4 0.17% 251 10.48% 2,395
Stafford 1,563 58.94% 978 36.88% 109 4.11% 2 0.08% 585 22.06% 2,652
Staunton 2,908 74.93% 843 21.72% 129 3.32% 1 0.03% 2,065 53.21% 3,881
Suffolk 1,617 57.50% 1,103 39.22% 88 3.13% 4 0.14% 514 18.28% 2,812
Surry 425 32.52% 616 47.13% 259 19.82% 7 0.54% -191 -14.61% 1,307
Sussex 785 39.31% 851 42.61% 357 17.88% 4 0.20% -66 -3.30% 1,997
Tazewell 3,960 52.55% 3,495 46.38% 75 1.00% 5 0.07% 465 6.17% 7,535
Virginia Beach 1,355 53.28% 1,111 43.69% 63 2.48% 14 0.55% 244 9.59% 2,543
Warren 2,003 58.83% 1,322 38.83% 77 2.26% 3 0.09% 681 20.00% 3,405
Warwick 4,872 56.39% 3,406 39.42% 352 4.07% 10 0.12% 1,466 16.97% 8,640
Washington 4,651 56.38% 3,547 42.99% 45 0.55% 7 0.08% 1,104 13.39% 8,250
Waynesboro 2,049 71.00% 748 25.92% 89 3.08% 0 0.00% 1,301 45.08% 2,886
Westmoreland 1,033 54.45% 695 36.64% 167 8.80% 2 0.11% 338 17.81% 1,897
Williamsburg 775 62.60% 362 29.24% 99 8.00% 2 0.16% 413 33.36% 1,238
Winchester 2,375 69.46% 945 27.64% 96 2.81% 3 0.09% 1,430 41.82% 3,419
Wise 4,871 46.41% 5,567 53.04% 51 0.49% 6 0.06% -696 -6.63% 10,495
Wythe 3,484 65.65% 1,766 33.28% 56 1.06% 1 0.02% 1,718 32.37% 5,307
York 1,759 60.10% 1,064 36.35% 100 3.42% 4 0.14% 695 23.75% 2,927
Totals 386,459 55.37% 267,760 38.36% 42,964 6.16% 795 0.11% 118,699 17.01% 697,978

Counties and independent cities that flipped from Democratic to Republican

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Counties and independent cities that flipped from Republican to Democratic

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Counties and independent cities that flipped from Republican to Unpledged

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Analysis

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Despite the doubts of the Sunday Star and Fort Worth Star-Telegram, Virginia voted for the Republican nominee, incumbent President Dwight Eisenhower, over the Democratic nominee, former Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson and States' Rights Party nominee Andrews. Eisenhower ultimately won the national election with 57.37 percent of the vote.

Although Andrews cut into support for both candidates, Eisenhower improved upon his 1952 margin over Stevenson, although the state was marginally less Republican relative to the nation than in 1952. Andrews' support was centered in the Southside, and he won an absolute majority in Prince Edward County, the epicenter of "Massive Resistance" to school integration and the home of his state chairman Robert B. Crawford.[22] Andrews was nonetheless a weak candidate and poor campaigner, limiting severely his ability to attract segregationists dissatisfied with both major parties.[11]

The major change from 1952 was a rapid trend of the modest but growing black electorate towards Eisenhower: whereas in 1952 he had won less than a quarter of black voters in Richmond and Norfolk, it is believed he won over three-quarters in 1956.[11] As of the 2020 presidential election, this is the last election when majority-black Charles City County has voted for a Republican presidential candidate.[23]

Notes

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  1. ^ Although he was born in Texas and grew up in Kansas before his military career, at the time of the 1952 election Eisenhower was president of Columbia University and was, officially, a resident of New York. During his first term as president, he moved his private residence to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and officially changed his residency to Pennsylvania.
  2. ^ a b c d e In this county or city where Stevenson ran third behind Andrews, margin given is Eisenhower vote minus Andrews vote and percentage given Eisenhower percentage minus Andrews percentage.
  3. ^ a b c In this county or city where Eisenhower ran third behind Andrews, margin given is Stevenson vote minus Andrews vote and percentage margin Stevenson percentage minus Andrews percentage

References

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  1. ^ Leip, David. "The Presidents". Retrieved September 27, 2017. Eisenhower's home state for the 1956 Election was Pennsylvania
  2. ^ a b Kousser, J. Morgan (1974). The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910. Yale University Press. pp. 178–181. ISBN 0-300-01696-4.
  3. ^ Key, Valdimer Orlando (1949). Southern Politics in State and Nation. pp. 20–25.
  4. ^ a b Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffrey A. (March 19, 2020). Republican Party Politics and the American South, 1865–1968. Cambridge University Press. pp. 217–221. ISBN 978-1107158436.
  5. ^ Moger, Allen. "The Rift in Virginia Democracy in 1896". The Journal of Southern History. 4 (3): 295–317. doi:10.2307/2191291. JSTOR 2191291.
  6. ^ Phillips, Kevin P.; The Emerging Republican Majority, pp. 210, 242 ISBN 978-0-691-16324-6
  7. ^ Heinemann, Ronald L. (2008). Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. p. 357. ISBN 978-0813927695.
  8. ^ Atkinson, Frank B. (2006). The Dynamic Dominion: Realignment and the Rise of Two-party Competition in Virginia, 1945–1980. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742552098.
  9. ^ Klarman, Michael (1976). "Why Massive Resistance?". In Webb, Clive (ed.). Southern Politics and the Second Reconstruction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 21–38. ISBN 080181667X.
  10. ^ Dierenfield, Bruce J. (1987). Keeper of the rules: Congressman Howard W. Smith of Virginia. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia. p. 148. ISBN 0813910684.
  11. ^ a b c Bartley, Numan V. (1976). Southern Politics and the Second Reconstruction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 87–91.
  12. ^ "State Slate to be Field for Andrews". Richmond Times-Dispatch. Richmond, Virginia. September 16, 1956. p. 1.
  13. ^ a b Latimer, James (September 16, 1956). "Poll Shows Undecided Voters May Swing Virginia Election". Richmond Times-Dispatch. Richmond, Virginia. p. 1.
  14. ^ "Polls Say Adlai Cuts Ike's Lead of 1952 — New Readers Still Strong Back President; Andrews Scores in Va". The World-News. Roanoke, Virginia. The Associated Press. October 12, 1952. p. 1.
  15. ^ "Eisenhower Leading Presidential Polls by Smaller Margins". The Raleigh Register. Beckley, West Virginia.
  16. ^ Shoemaker, Whitney (October 26, 1956). "The Political Scene: Virginia — Andrews' Third-Party Pictured as 2-Edged Knife". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Philadelphia. p. 3.
  17. ^ Latimer, James (October 28, 1956). "Virginia". The Sunday Star. Washington, D.C. p. A-31.
  18. ^ "Final Babson Poll Shows Eisenhower Winning Easily". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. CTS. November 2, 1956. p. 22.
  19. ^ Trohan, Walter (November 3, 1956). "Hour of Decision Near: Eisenhower Lead Increasing Daily". Corpus Christi Times. Chicago Tribune Service. p. 4.
  20. ^ "Statistics of the Presidential and Congressional Election of November 6, 1956" (PDF). Clerk of the House of Representatives. p. 44.
  21. ^ "VA US President 1956". Our Campaigns.
  22. ^ "Stevenson Takes Lead in Southside Virginia". Richmond Times-Dispatch. November 7, 1956. p. 2.
  23. ^ Sullivan, Robert David (June 29, 2016). "How the Red and Blue Map Evolved Over the Past Century". The National Catholic Review (America Magazine ed.).
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