Miniaturization (Br.Eng.: miniaturisation) is the trend to manufacture ever-smaller mechanical, optical, and electronic products and devices. Examples include miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine downsizing. In electronics, the exponential scaling and miniaturization of silicon MOSFETs (MOS transistors)[1][2][3] leads to the number of transistors on an integrated circuit chip doubling every two years,[4][5] an observation known as Moore's law.[6][7] This leads to MOS integrated circuits such as microprocessors and memory chips being built with increasing transistor density, faster performance, and lower power consumption, enabling the miniaturization of electronic devices.[8][3]
Electronic circuits
editThe history of miniaturization is associated with the history of information technology based on the succession of switching devices, each smaller, faster, and cheaper than its predecessor.[9] During the period referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870–1914), miniaturization was confined to two-dimensional electronic circuits used for the manipulation of information.[10] This orientation is demonstrated in the use of vacuum tubes in the first general-purpose computers. The technology gave way to the development of transistors in the 1950s and then the integrated circuit (IC) approach which followed.[9]
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The MOSFET was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960.[11][12][13][14][15][16] It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturized and mass-produced for a wide range of uses,[17] due to its high scalability[1] and low power consumption, leading to increasing transistor density.[5] This made it possible to build high-density IC chips,[18] with reduced cost-per-transistor as transistor density increased.[19]
In the early 1960s, Gordon Moore, who later founded Intel, recognized that the ideal electrical and scaling characteristics of MOSFET devices would lead to rapidly increasing integration levels and unparalleled growth in electronic applications.[20] Moore's law, which he described in 1965, and which was later named after him,[21] predicted that the number of transistors on an IC for minimum component cost would double every 18 months.[contradictory][6][7] In 1974, Robert H. Dennard at IBM recognized the rapid MOSFET scaling technology and formulated the related Dennard scaling rule.[22][23] Moore described the development of miniaturization during the 1975 International Electron Devices Meeting, confirming his earlier predictions.[19]
By 2004, electronics companies were producing silicon IC chips with switching MOSFETs that had feature size as small as 130 nanometers (nm) and development was also underway for chips a few nanometers in size through the nanotechnology initiative.[24] The focus is to make components smaller to increase the number that can be integrated into a single wafer and this required critical innovations, which include increasing wafer size, the development of sophisticated metal connections between the chip's circuits, and improvement in the polymers used for masks (photoresists) in the photolithography processes.[21] These last two are the areas where miniaturization has moved into the nanometer range.[21]
Other fields
editMiniaturization became a trend in the last fifty years and came to cover not just electronic but also mechanical devices.[25] The process for miniaturizing mechanical devices is more complex due to the way the structural properties of mechanical parts change as they are reduced in scale.[25] It has been said that the so-called Third Industrial Revolution (1969 – c. 2015) is based on economically viable technologies that can shrink three-dimensional objects.[10]
In medical technology, engineers and designers have been exploring miniaturization to shrink components to the micro and nanometer range. Smaller devices can have lower cost, be made more portable (e.g.: for ambulances), and allow simpler and less invasive medical procedures.[26]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)" (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (1): 43–48. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462. ISSN 0018-9219. S2CID 29105721. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-07-19.
- ^ "Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race - CHM Revolution". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
- ^ a b Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Colinge, C. A. (2005). Physics of Semiconductor Devices. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 165. ISBN 9780387285238.
- ^ Siozios, Kostas; Anagnostos, Dimitrios; Soudris, Dimitrios; Kosmatopoulos, Elias (2018). IoT for Smart Grids: Design Challenges and Paradigms. Springer. p. 167. ISBN 9783030036409.
- ^ a b "Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive". EETimes. 12 December 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
- ^ a b "Cramming more components onto integrated circuits" (PDF). Electronics Magazine. 1965. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 18, 2008. Retrieved November 11, 2006.
- ^ a b "Excerpts from A Conversation with Gordon Moore: Moore's Law" (PDF). Intel Corporation. 2005. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 29, 2012. Retrieved May 2, 2006.
- ^ Sridharan, K.; Pudi, Vikramkumar (2015). Design of Arithmetic Circuits in Quantum Dot Cellular Automata Nanotechnology. Springer. p. 1. ISBN 9783319166889.
- ^ a b Sharma, Karl (2010). Nanostructuring Operations in Nanoscale Science and Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. pp. 16. ISBN 9780071626095.
- ^ a b Ghosh, Amitabha; Corves, Burkhard (2015). Introduction to Micromechanisms and Microactuators. Heidelberg: Springer. p. 32. ISBN 9788132221432.
- ^ Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (2007-09-01). "Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)". The Electrochemical Society Interface. 16 (3): 29. doi:10.1149/2.F02073IF. ISSN 1064-8208.
- ^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.
- ^ KAHNG, D. (1961). "Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device". Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583–596. doi:10.1142/9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5.
- ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-540-34258-8.
- ^ Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960). "The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131–136. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5.
- ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
- ^ Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 165–167. ISBN 9780470508923.
- ^ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
- ^ a b Brock, David; Moore, Gordon (2006). Understanding Moore's Law: Four Decades of Innovation. Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Press. p. 26. ISBN 0941901416.
- ^ Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 18–5. ISBN 9781420006728.
- ^ a b c Guston, David (2010). Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. p. 440. ISBN 9781412969871.
- ^ McMenamin, Adrian (April 15, 2013). "The end of Dennard scaling". Retrieved January 23, 2014.
- ^ Streetman, Ben G.; Banerjee, Sanjay Kumar (2016). Solid state electronic devices. Boston: Pearson. p. 341. ISBN 978-1-292-06055-2. OCLC 908999844.
- ^ Jha, B.B; Galgali, R.K.; Misra, Vibhuti (2004). Futuristic Materials. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. p. 55. ISBN 8177646168.
- ^ a b Van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2002). Science in Popular Culture: A Reference Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 193. ISBN 0313318220.
- ^ "Micro Moulding and Miniaturisation in MedTech". Micro Systems. 17 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.