Old Spanish

Old Spanish (roman, romançe, romaz; Spanish: español medieval), also known as Old Castilian or Medieval Spanish, refers to the varieties of Ibero-Romance spoken predominantly in Castile and environs during the Middle Ages. The earliest, longest, and most famous literary composition in Old Spanish is the Cantar de mio Cid (ca. 1140–1207).

Old Spanish
Old Castilian
roman, romançe, romaz
Native to	Crown of Castile
Region	Iberian peninsula
Ethnicity	Castilians, later Spaniards
Era	9th–15th centuries
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Romance Italo-Western Western Romance Gallo-Iberian Ibero-Romance West Iberian Old Spanish
Early forms	Old Latin Vulgar Latin Proto-Romance
Writing system	Latin Aljamiado (marginal)
Language codes
ISO 639-3	osp
Linguist List	osp
Glottolog	olds1249

Phonology

Vowels

Monophthongs

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Mid	e		o
Open		a

Diphthongs

/i͡e/

/u͡e/

Consonants

Penny (2002:96)

		Labial	Dental	(Denti-)Alveolar	(Pre-)Palatal		Velar
Nasal		m		n	ɲ
Stop/Affricate	voiceless	p	t	t͡s	t͡ʃ		k
	voiced	b	d	d͡z			ɡ
Fricative	voiceless			s	ʃ		h
	voiced	βべーた		z	ʒ	ʝ
Lateral				l	ʎ
Trill				r
Flap				ɾ

(/s/ and /z/ were apico-alveolar.)

/b/ and /βべーた/

These were still distinct phonemes in Old Spanish, judging by the consistency with which the graphemes ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ were distinguished. Nevertheless, the two could be confused in consonant clusters (as in alba~alva “dawn”) or in word-initial position, perhaps after /n/ or a pause. /b/ and /βべーた/ appear to have merged in word-initial position by about 1400 and in all other environments by the mid–late 16th century at the latest.

/h/

At an archaic stage, the realizations of /h/ (from Latin /f/) would have been approximately as follows:

• [ɸ] before [i e a] or [j ɾ l]
• [h] before [o] or [u]
• [ʍ] or [hɸ] before [w]

By early Old Spanish, [ɸ] had been replaced with [h] before all vowels and possibly before [j] as well.

In later Old Spanish, surviving [ɸ] and [ʍ]/[hɸ] were modified to [f] in urban speech, likely due to the influx of numerous French and Occitan speakers (and their particular pronunciation of Latin) beginning in the twelfth century. Various words with [f] were then borrowed into Spanish, leading to minimal pairs like [ˈfoɾma] “form” (a borrowing) and [ˈhoɾma] “shoemaker's last” (inherited from Latin forma). The result was a new phoneme /f/, distinct from /h/.

/ʒ/

Possibly realized as [d͡ʒ] after pauses or certain consonants (judging by outcomes in Judeo-Spanish).

Development of sibilants to modern Spanish

Main article: Phonological history of Spanish coronal fricatives § Historical_evolution

1. /t͡s d͡z/ deaffricated to /s̻ z̻/.
2. /z̻ z ʒ/ devoiced and merged into /s̻ s ʃ/.
3. /ʃ/ was retracted to /x/.
4. /s̻/ (depending on dialect) merged into /s/ or fronted to /θしーた/.

Orthography

Al-Fatiha with Spanish translations in Aljamiado script above each line of Arabic Quranic text.

Scripts

Old Spanish was generally written in some variation of the Latin script. It was also sometimes written in Arabic script in a practice called Aljamiado.

/ɲ ʎ/

These sounds were spelt ⟨nn⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ respectively. ⟨nn⟩ was often abbreviated to ⟨ñ⟩, which went on to become the normal spelling of /ɲ/ in Modern Spanish.

Graeco-Latin diagraphs

Old Spanish featured the digraphs ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨(r)rh⟩, and ⟨th⟩ which were simplified to ⟨c⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨(r)r⟩, ⟨t⟩ in Modern Spanish. Examples include:

• christiano (modern cristiano)
• triumpho (modern triunfo)
• myrrha (modern mirra)
• theatro (modern teatro)

⟨y⟩

⟨y⟩ often stood for /i/ in word-initial position. In this context it has since been respelt to ⟨i⟩ in Modern Spanish.

Sibilants

(The following table does not account for sandhi contexts.)

consonant	spelling	context
/t͡s/	⟨ç⟩	any
	⟨c⟩	before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
	⟨z⟩	final
		before a voiceless consonant
/d͡z/		before a voiced consonant
		initial
		intervocalic
/s/	⟨ss⟩	intervocalic
	⟨s⟩	initial
		before a voiceless consonant
/z/		before a voiced consonant
		intervocalic
/ʃ/	⟨x⟩	any
	⟨i⟩	final
/ʒ/		before a vowel
	⟨g⟩	before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩
/t͡ʃ/	⟨ch⟩	any

Morphology

In Old Spanish, perfect constructions of movement verbs, such as ir ('(to) go') and venir ('(to) come'), were formed using the auxiliary verb ser ('(to) be'), as in Italian and French: Las mugieres son llegadas a Castiella was used instead of Las mujeres han llegado a Castilla ('The women have arrived in Castilla').

Possession was expressed with the verb aver (Modern Spanish haber, '(to) have'), rather than tener: Pedro ha dos fijas was used instead of Pedro tiene dos hijas ('Pedro has two daughters').

In the perfect tenses, the past participle often agreed with the gender and number of the direct object: María ha cantadas dos canciones was used instead of Modern Spanish María ha cantado dos canciones ('María has sung two songs'). However, that was inconsistent even in the earliest texts.

The prospective aspect was formed with the verb ir ('(to) go') along with the verb in infinitive, with the difference that Modern Spanish includes the preposition a:

Al Çid beso la mano, la senna ua tomar. (Cantar de mio Cid, 691)

Al Cid besó la mano, la enseña va a tomar. (Modern Spanish equivalent)

Personal pronouns and substantives were placed after the verb in any tense or mood unless a stressed word was before the verb.

The future and the conditional tenses were not yet fully grammaticalised as inflections; rather, they were still periphrastic formations of the verb aver in the present or imperfect indicative followed by the infinitive of a main verb. Pronouns, therefore, by the general placement rules, could be inserted between the main verb and the auxiliary in these periphrastic tenses, as still occurs with Portuguese (mesoclisis):

E dixo: ― Tornar-m-é a Jherusalem. (Fazienda de Ultra Mar, 194)

Y dijo: ― Me tornaré a Jerusalén. (literal translation into Modern Spanish)

E disse: ― Tornar-me-ei a Jerusalém. (literal translation into Portuguese)

And he said: "I will return to Jerusalem." (English translation)

En pennar gelo he por lo que fuere guisado (Cantar de mio Cid, 92)

Se lo empeñaré por lo que sea razonable (Modern Spanish equivalent)

Penhorar-lho-ei pelo que for razoável (Portuguese equivalent)

I will pawn them it for whatever it be reasonable (English translation)

When there was a stressed word before the verb, the pronouns would go before the verb: non gelo empeñar he por lo que fuere guisado.

Generally, an unstressed pronoun and a verb in simple sentences combined into one word. In a compound sentence, the pronoun was found in the beginning of the clause: la manol va besar = la mano le va a besar.

The future subjunctive was in common use (fuere in the second example above) but it is generally now found only in legal or solemn discourse and in the spoken language in some dialects, particularly in areas of Venezuela, to replace the imperfect subjunctive. It was used similarly to its Modern Portuguese counterpart, in place of the modern present subjunctive in a subordinate clause after si, cuando etc., when an event in the future is referenced:

Si vos assi lo fizieredes e la ventura me fuere complida

Mando al vuestro altar buenas donas e ricas (Cantar de mio Cid, 223–224)

Si vosotros así lo hiciereis y la ventura me fuere cumplida,

Mando a vuestro altar ofrendas buenas y ricas (Modern Spanish equivalent)

Se vós assim o fizerdes e a ventura me for cumprida,

Mando a vosso altar oferendas boas e ricas. (Portuguese equivalent.)

If you do so and fortune is favourable toward me,

I will send to your altar fine and rich offerings (English translation)

Vocabulary

Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish	Modern Portuguese
acceptāre, captāre, effectum, respectum	acetar, catar, efeto, respeto	aceptar, captar, efecto, respecto, respeto	aceitar, captar, efeito, respeito
et, nōn, nōs, hīc	e, et; non, no; nós; í	y, e; no; nosotros; ahí	e; não; nós; aí
stābat; habuī, habēbat; facere, fecisti	estava; ove, avié; far/fer/fazer, fezist(e)/fizist(e)	estaba; hube, había; hacer, hiciste	estava; houve, havia; fazer, fizeste
hominem, mulierem, īnfantem	omne/omre/ombre, mugier/muger, ifante	hombre, mujer, infante	homem, mulher, infante
crās, māne (māneāna); numquam	cras, man, mañana; nunqua/nunquas	mañana, nunca	manhã, nunca
quandō, quid, quī (quem), quōmodo	quando, que, qui, commo/cuemo	cuando, que, quien, como	quando, que, quem, como
fīlia	fyia, fija	hija	filha

Sample text

The following is a sample from Cantar de Mio Cid (lines 330–365), with abbreviations resolved, punctuation (the original has none), and some modernized letters. Below is the original Old Spanish text in the first column, along with the same text in Modern Spanish in the second column and an English translation in the third column.

The poem

Ya sennor glorioso, padre que en çielo estas,
Fezist çielo e tierra, el terçero el mar,
Fezist estrelas e luna, e el sol pora escalentar,
Prisist en carnaçion en sancta maria madre,
En belleem apareçist, commo fue tu veluntad,
Pastores te glorificaron, ovieron de a laudare,
Tres Reyes de arabia te vinieron adorar,
Melchior e gaspar e baltasar, oro e tus e mirra
Te offreçieron, commo fue tu veluntad.
Saluest a jonas quando cayo en la mar,
Saluest a daniel con los leones en la mala carçel,
Saluest dentro en Roma al sennor san sabastián,
Saluest a sancta susanna del falso criminal,
Por tierra andidiste xxxii annos, sennor spirital,
Mostrando los miraculos, por en auemos que fablar,
Del agua fezist vino e dela piedra pan,
Resuçitest a Lazaro, ca fue tu voluntad,
Alos judios te dexeste prender, do dizen monte caluarie
Pusieron te en cruz, por nombre en golgota,
Dos ladrones contigo, estos de sennas partes,
El vno es en parayso, ca el otro non entro ala,
Estando en la cruz vertud fezist muy grant,
Longinos era çiego, que nuquas vio alguandre,
Diot con la lança enel costado, dont yxio la sangre,
Corrio la sangre por el astil ayuso, las manos se ouo de vntar,
Alçolas arriba, legolas a la faz,
Abrio sos oios, cato atodas partes,
En ti crouo al ora, por end es saluo de mal.
Enel monumento Resuçitest e fust alos ynfiernos,
Commo fue tu voluntad,
Quebranteste las puertas e saqueste los padres sanctos.
Tueres Rey delos Reyes e de todel mundo padre,
Ati adoro e creo de toda voluntad,
E Ruego a san peydro que me aiude a Rogar
Por mio çid el campeador, que dios le curie de mal,
Quando oy nos partimos, en vida nos faz iuntar.

Oh Señor glorioso, Padre que en el cielo estás,
Hiciste el cielo y la tierra, al tercer día el mar,
Hiciste las estrellas y la luna, y el sol para calentar,
Te encarnaste en Santa María madre,
En Belén apareciste, como fue tu voluntad,
Pastores te glorificaron, te tuvieron que loar,
Tres reyes de Arabia te vinieron a adorar,
Melchor, Gaspar y Baltasar; oro, incienso y mirra
Te ofrecieron, como fue tu voluntad.
Salvaste a Jonás cuando cayó en el mar,
Salvaste a Daniel con los leones en la mala cárcel,
Salvaste dentro de Roma al señor San Sebastián,
Salvaste a Santa Susana del falso criminal,
Por tierra anduviste treinta y dos años, Señor espiritual,
Mostrando los milagros, por ende tenemos qué hablar,
Del agua hiciste vino y de la piedra pan,
Resucitaste a Lázaro, porque fue tu voluntad,
Por los judíos te dejaste prender, en donde llaman Monte Calvario
Te pusieron en la cruz, en un lugar llamado Golgotá,
Dos ladrones contigo, estos de sendas partes,
Uno está en el paraíso, porque el otro no entró allá,
Estando en la cruz hiciste una virtud muy grande,
Longinos era ciego que jamás se vio,
Te dio con la lanza en el costado, de donde salió la sangre,
Corrió la sangre por el astil abajo, las manos se tuvo que untar,
Las alzó arriba, se las llevó a la cara,
Abrió sus ojos, miró a todas partes,
En ti creyó entonces, por ende se salvó del mal.
En el monumento resucitaste y fuiste a los infiernos,
Como fue tu voluntad,
Quebrantaste las puertas y sacaste a los padres santos.
Tú eres Rey de los reyes y de todo el mundo padre,
A ti te adoro y en ti creo de toda voluntad,
Y ruego a San Pedro que me ayude a rogar
Por mi Cid el Campeador, que Dios le cuide del mal,
Cuando hoy partamos, en vida haznos juntar.

English translation

O glorious Lord, Father who art in Heaven,
Thou madest Heaven and Earth, and on the third day the sea,
Thou madest the stars and the Moon, and the Sun for warmth,
Thou incarnatedst Thyself of the Blessed Mother Mary,
In Bethlehem Thou appearedst, for it was Thy will,
Shepherds glorified Thee, they gave Thee praise,
Three kings of Arabia came to worship Thee,
Melchior, Caspar, and Balthazar; offered Thee
Gold, frankincense, and myrrh, for it was Thy will.
Thou savedst Jonah when he fell into the sea,
Thou savedst Daniel from the lions in the terrible jail,
Thou savedst Saint Sebastian in Rome,
Thou savedst Saint Susan from the false charge,
On Earth Thou walkedst thirty-two years, Spiritual Lord,
Performing miracles, thus we have of which to speak,
Of the water Thou madest wine and of the stone bread,
Thou revivedst Lazarus, because it was Thy will,
Thou leftest Thyself to be arrested by the Jews, where they call Mount Calvary,
They placed Thee on the Cross, in the place called Golgotha,
Two thieves with Thee, these of split paths,
One is in Paradise, but the other did not enter there,
Being on the Cross Thou didst a very great virtue,
Longinus was blind ever he saw Thee,
He gave Thee a blow with the lance in the broadside, where he left the blood,
Running down the arm, the hands Thou hadst spread,
Raised it up, as it led to Thy face,
Opened their eyes, saw all parts,
And believed in Thee then, thus saved them from evil.
Thou revivedst in the tomb and went to Hell,
For it was Thy will,
Thou hast broken the doors and brought out the holy fathers.
Thou art King of Kings and of all the world Father,
I worship Thee and I believe in all Thy will,
And I pray to Saint Peter to help with my prayer,
For my Cid the Champion, that God nurse from evil,
When we part today, that we are joined in this life or the next.

See also

• History of the Spanish language
• Early Modern Spanish (Middle Spanish)
• Judeo-Spanish preserves some of the sounds and terms of Old Spanish that have been lost in Modern Spanish.

Bibliography

• Bradley, Travis G.; Lozano, Claire Julia (2022). "Language contact and phonological innovation in the voiced prepalatal obstruents of Judeo-Spanish". Languages. 7 (4): 313. doi:10.3390/languages7040313.
• Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. (2020). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (23rd ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Archived from the original on 6 April 2006. Retrieved 22 June 2002.
• Hualde, José Ignacio (2013). "Intervocalic lenition and word-boundary effects". Diachronica. 30 (2): 232–266. doi:10.1075/dia.30.2.04hua.
• Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). From Latin to Spanish. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
• Penny, Ralph (2002). A History of the Spanish Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521011846.

External links

• An explanation of the development of Mediaeval Spanish sibilants in Castile and Andalusia.

• Diccionario de la prosa castellana del rey Alfonso X (part of Dictionary of the Old Spanish Language)