Training wheels, known as stabilizers outside North America,[1][2] are a pair of additional wheels attached to the rear wheel of a bicycle, effectively turning it into a quadricycle, for beginners learn to ride independently.[3] Since the late 1990s, balance bikes have gradually replaced training wheels as a more effective tool for developing a sense of balance.[4][5]
History
editThe American company Huffy introduced training wheels in 1949 with its 'Convertible' bike.[6] The typical design for training wheels has not changed since this time. They are composed of two small wheels, one on each side of the rear wheel of the bicycle. They are attached laterally to a metal bracket or frame that extends outward from the bicycle frame, ideally keeping the training wheels just above the ground. The bracket is meant to be adjustable to accommodate different heights and angles of the training wheels, allowing for customization based on the rider's needs, but this is difficult to achieve in practice.[7]
The concept of training wheels can refer figuratively in English to any artificial support for a machine, especially in software development.[8]
Use
editThe functionality of training wheels is based on the premise that a learner rider can gradually develop their balance and coordination skills by relying on the support of the extra wheels. As the rider gains confidence and proficiency, the training wheels are gradually raised or removed, theoretically allowing the rider to transition to riding without additional support.[9]
Limitations
editResearchers have demonstrated that training wheels delay the development of proper balance and steering skills. Reliance on training wheels prevents riders from fully experiencing the dynamic nature of riding a bicycle and leads to difficulties in transitioning to riding without them.[4] Training wheels that prevent the bike from leaning also prevent countersteering, so that, as with a tricycle, children learn to turn the handlebars the wrong way, which must be unlearned later.[7]
- Limited balance development: Training wheels, while offering initial stability, inhibit the development of essential balance and coordination skills. The extra wheels prevent the rider from fully experiencing the natural side-to-side motion required for balance. As a result, riders may become overly reliant on the training wheels and struggle to transition to riding without them.[10]
- Delayed confidence building: Training wheels can create a false sense of security for young riders. As they become accustomed to the stability provided by the training wheels, they may not feel confident enough to ride without them. This can lead to a longer learning period and hinder the development of self-assurance.[11]
- Ineffective steering control: Training wheels limit the rider's ability to steer the bicycle effectively. Since the training wheels primarily support the weight, the rider has less control over the direction of the bicycle. This restriction can impede the development of essential manoeuvring skills and make it harder for the rider to navigate corners and obstacles.[12]
- Difficulty transitioning: Removing training wheels can be a challenging and intimidating process for young riders. The sudden shift from a supported riding experience to unsupported riding can be overwhelming and frustrating. Many children experience setbacks and become discouraged during this transition phase, often requiring additional time and support to become comfortable riding without training wheels.[13]
Training wheels particularly become an obstacle to learning if they are adjusted incorrectly, because they prevent the bike from leaning if they are too low, and inhibit braking if too much weight is taken off the rear wheel by training wheels that are too low. Adjusting training wheels correctly, and raising them higher as the child's skill increases, helps to mitigate but does not completely eliminate these problems.[14]
Replacement by balance bikes
editReturning to the bicycle's origin in the dandy horse, balance bikes rapidly gained favour in cycling pedagogy after their introduction in 1997.[15] Balance bikes are bicycles without pedals that allow children to develop balance and coordination naturally without the use of training wheels. Learning to ride with a balance bike delivers greater long-term benefits for young riders than training wheels.[4] Balance bikes began to supplant training wheels globally during the 2010s.[16]
References
edit- ^ "stabilizers". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ "training wheel". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Clark, Nick; Rowntree, Isla (7 April 2023). "How to teach a kid to ride a bike in 30 minutes". BikeRadar. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
- ^ a b c Blommenstein, Biko; Kamp, John (2022). "Mastering balance: The use of balance bicycles promotes the development of independent cycling". British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 40 (2): 242–253. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12409. ISSN 0261-510X. PMC 9310799. PMID 35262200.
- ^ Mercê, Cristiana; Branco, Marco; Catela, David; Lopes, Frederico; Cordovil, Rita (2022). "Learning to cycle: From training wheels to balance bike". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (3): 1814. doi:10.3390/ijerph19031814. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 8834827. PMID 35162834.
- ^ Clemitson, Suze (2017). A history of cycling in 100 objects. London: Bloomsbury. p. 144. ISBN 9781472918888.
- ^ a b Becker, Andrew; Jenny, Seth E. (4 May 2017). "No need for training wheels: Ideas for including balance bikes in elementary physical education". Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 88 (4): 14–21. doi:10.1080/07303084.2016.1270789. ISSN 0730-3084. S2CID 113778276.
- ^ Carroll, John M.; Carrithers, Caroline (1984). "Training wheels in a user interface". Communications of the ACM. 27 (8): 800–806. doi:10.1145/358198.358218. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 2269827.
- ^ Davies, Sarah (2 May 2020). "On your bike!". Early Years Educator. 22 (1): S4–S5. doi:10.12968/eyed.2020.22.1.S4. ISSN 1465-931X. S2CID 218789762.
- ^ Shim, Andrew L.; Norman, Shannon (2 January 2015). "Incorporating pedal-less bicycles into a pre-K through third-grade curriculum to improve stability in children". Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 86 (1): 50–51. doi:10.1080/07303084.2015.978681. ISSN 0730-3084. S2CID 154141926.
- ^ Murray, Alison; Howells, Kristy (6 February 2023). "Wheels up: Spiral progression pedagogy towards creative movers using wheels". Journal of Early Childhood Education Research. 12 (1): 54–78. ISSN 2323-7414.
- ^ Mercê, Cristiana; Cordovil, Rita; Catela, David; Galdino, Flávia; Bernardino, Mafalda; Altenburg, Mirjam; António, Gonçalo; Brígida, Nancy; Branco, Marco (2022). "Learning to cycle: Is velocity a control parameter for children's cycle patterns on the balance bike?". Children. 9 (12): 1937. doi:10.3390/children9121937. ISSN 2227-9067. PMC 9776492. PMID 36553380.
- ^ Cain, Stephen M.; Ulrich, Dale A.; Perkins, Noel C. (17 October 2012). "Using measured bicycle kinematics to quantify increased skill as a rider learns to ride a bicycle". ASME 2012 5th annual dynamic systems and control conference joint with the JSME 2012 11th motion and vibration conference. Vol. 3. Fort Lauderdale, FL: ASME. pp. 195–199. doi:10.1115/DSCC2012-MOVIC2012-8541. ISBN 978-0-7918-4531-8.
- ^ Mercê, Cristiana; Pereira, Joana Vilar; Branco, Marco; Catela, David; Cordovil, Rita (23 November 2021). "Training programmes to learn how to ride a bicycle independently for children and youths: A systematic review". Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 28 (5): 530–545. doi:10.1080/17408989.2021.2005014. ISSN 1740-8989. S2CID 244650340.
- ^ Rosen, Jody (2022). Two wheels good: The history and mystery of the bicycle. London: Bodley Head. ISBN 9781847923073.
- ^ Cordovil, Rita; Mercê, Cristiana; Branco, Marco; Lopes, Frederico; Catela, David; Hasanen, Elina; Laukkanen, Arto; Tortella, Patrizia; Fumagalli, Guido; Sá, Cristina; Jidovtseff, Boris; Zeuwts, Linus; De Meester, An; Bardid, Farid; Fujikawa, Ricardo (28 April 2022). "Learning to cycle: A cross-cultural and cross-generational comparison". Frontiers in Public Health. 10: 861390. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.861390. ISSN 2296-2565. PMC 9096157. PMID 35570950.