Zhang Xueliang (Chinese:
Zhang Xueliang | |
---|---|
![]() Zhang in 1928 | |
Warlord of Manchuria | |
In office June 4, 1928 – December 26, 1936 | |
Preceded by | Zhang Zuolin |
Succeeded by | Office abolished |
Personal details | |
Born | Tai'an County, Fengtian, Qing Empire | June 3, 1901
Died | October 15, 2001 (aged 100) Honolulu County, Hawaii, U.S. |
Resting place | Valley of the Temples Memorial Park, Honolulu County, Hawaii |
Nationality | Chinese |
Spouses | |
Children | 5 |
Parent |
|
Relatives | Zhang Xueming (brother) |
Awards | Order of Rank and Merit Order of Wen-Hu Order of the Sacred Treasure Order of Blue Sky and White Sun |
Nickname | Young Marshal |
Military service | |
Allegiance |
|
Branch/service | |
Rank | General of the Army[citation needed] |
Commands | Northeast Peace Preservation Forces |
Battles/wars | |
Zhang Xueliang | |||||||||||
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Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 张学 | ||||||||||
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Early life
editZhang Xueliang was born in Haicheng, Liaoning province on June 3, 1901. Zhang was educated by private tutors and, unlike his father, the warlord Zhang Zuolin,[6] he felt at ease in the company of westerners.[7]
Career
editZhang graduated from Fengtian Military Academy, was made a colonel in the Fengtian Army, and appointed the commander of his father's bodyguards in 1919. In 1921 he was sent to Japan to observe military maneuvers, where he developed a special interest in aircraft. Later, he developed an air corps for the Fengtian Army, which was widely used in the battles that took place within the Great Wall during the 1920s. In 1922, he was promoted to major general and commanded an army-sized force. Two years later, he was also made commander of the air units. Upon the death of his father in 1928, he succeeded him as the leader of the Northeast Peace Preservation Forces (popularly "Northeastern Army"), which controlled China's northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Fengtian, and Jilin.[8] In December of the same year he proclaimed his allegiance to the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party).
Warlord to republican general
editThe Japanese believed that Zhang Xueliang, who was known as a womanizer and an opium addict, would be much more subject to Japanese influence than was his father. On this premise, an officer of the Japanese Kwantung Army therefore killed his father, Zhang Zuolin, by exploding a bomb above his train while it crossed under a railroad bridge. Surprisingly, the younger Zhang proved to be more independent and skilled than anyone had expected and declared his support for Chiang Kai-shek, leading to the reunification of China in 1928. With the assistance of Australian journalist William Henry Donald and Dr. Harry Willis Miller, he overcame his opium addiction in 1933 with the administering of Cantharidin auto-serum therapy.[1]
He was given the nickname "Hero of History" (
In 1930, when warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan attempted to overthrow Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang government, Zhang stepped in to support the Nanjing-based government against the Northern warlords in exchange for control of the key railroads in Hebei and the customs revenues from the port city of Tianjin. A year later, in the September 18 Mukden Incident, Japanese troops attacked Zhang's forces in Shenyang in order to provoke a full-on war with China, which Chiang did not want to face until his forces were stronger.[9] In accordance with this strategy, Zhang's armies withdrew from the front lines without significant engagements, leading to the effective Japanese occupation of Zhang's former northeastern domain.[10] There has been speculation that Chiang Kai-Shek wrote a letter to Zhang asking him to pull his forces back, but Zhang later stated that he himself issued the orders. Apparently, Zhang was aware of how weak his forces were compared to the Japanese and wished to preserve his position by retaining a sizeable army. Nonetheless, this would still be in line with Chiang's overall strategic standings. Zhang later traveled in Europe before returning to China to take command of the Encirclement Campaigns, first in Hebei-Henan-Anhui and later in the Northwest.
Xi'an incident
editOn April 6, 1936, Zhang met with CPC delegate Zhou Enlai to plan the end of the Chinese Civil War. KMT leader Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek at the time took a passive position against Japan and considered the communists to be a greater danger to the Republic of China than the Japanese, and his overall strategy was to annihilate the communists before focusing his efforts on the Japanese.[9] He believed that "communism was a cancer while the Japanese represented a superficial wound." Growing nationalist anger against Japan made this position very unpopular, and led to Zhang's action against Chiang, known as the Xi'an Incident.
In December 1936, Zhang and General Yang Hucheng kidnapped Chiang, imprisoning him until he agreed to form a united front with the communists against the Japanese invasion. After two weeks of negotiations, Chiang agreed to unite with the communists and drive the Japanese out of China.
After Chiang negotiated with the Communists, Zhang flew back to Nanjing as a demonstration of good faith.[11]: 53
Life under house arrest
editTrial
editAs soon as Zhang landed in Nanjing, Chiang had him placed under arrest by military police.[12] Zhang wrote Chiang an obsequious letter of apology. Although he never disavowed his role in the Xi'an incident, he admitted that what he had done was a crime, and asked to be punished. He intended the letter to be a private assurance of loyalty to Chiang, but the latter had the letter published so as to discredit Zhang.[13] Li Liejun then presided over a show trial which convicted Zhang of abducting the Generalissimo and attempting to change government policy, sentencing him to ten years in prison.[14] Chiang had him pardoned just a few days later, on 4 January 1937, but with the stipulation that he not be given his civil rights back and that he would remain under protective detention.[15]
Mainland China
editDuring the first few years of Zhang's imprisonment, he was regularly moved from location to location under the close supervision of Chiang Kai-shek. He was soon joined by his first wife, Yu Fengzhi. The couple began living with the family of one of his wardens, Liu Yiguang. Zhang was allowed access to his bank account, but was (according to custom) expected to pay for most of the expenses related to his detention.[16] In 1940 Yu Fengzhi became sick with breast cancer and was granted permission to seek treatment in the United States.[17] Although they remained affectionate in their letters to one another, the couple would never see each other again. In 1964, Yu agreed to divorce Zhang so that he could marry Zhao.[18]
Taiwan
editZhang was eventually taken to Taiwan, where he remained under house arrest until Chiang's 1975 death.[11]: 53 Much of his time was spent studying Ming dynasty literature and the Manchu language and collecting Chinese fan paintings, calligraphy, and other works of art by illustrious artists (a collection of more than 200 works using his studio's name "Dingyuanzhai" (
Zhang studied the New Testament. In 1964, he formally married Edith Chao, daughter of a senior official, who left her family in her teens to become his companion and later followed him into exile. His first wife, Yu, said she was so moved by Ms. Chao's devotion that she released her husband from his vows. Zhang and his wife, Edith, became devout Christians who also regularly attended Sunday services at the Methodist chapel in Shilin, a Taipei suburb, with Chiang Kai-shek's family. On March 26, 1988, two months after the death of Chiang Kai-shek's son Chiang Ching-kuo, his freedom was officially restored.[19]
Later life and death
editIn 1991, Zhang made his first trip abroad after being released from house arrest, visiting San Francisco to see friends and family who had moved there.[20] Zhang emigrated to Honolulu, Hawaii in 1995. There he lived with his younger brother Chang Hsueh-sen, who was working as a hotelier.[21] There were numerous pleas for him to visit mainland China, but Zhang declined, citing his political closeness to the KMT and his frail health.[1][22] However, he was named as the honorary President of Northeastern University in 1993, where he served as President between 1928 and 1937. Zhang was also named as the honorary chairman of Harbin Institute of Technology in 1993.[1]
In June 2000, Edith Chao passed away at the age of 88.[22] On October 14 of the following year, Zhang died of pneumonia at the age of 100.[note 4] at Straub Hospital in Honolulu.[1] Representatives from both China and Taiwan attended his funeral in Honolulu, along with Yan Mingfu, the former head of China's United Front Work Department and the son of Zhang's close friend, Yan Baohang .[23][24]
Awards
edit- :
- Order of Rank and Merit (1920)[25]
- :
- Order of National Glory
- Order of Blue Sky and White Sun with Grand Cordon
- Order of Wen-Hu, 1st class, twice (1919, 1921)[25]
- :
- Commandeur of the Legion of Honor[26]
- :
- Order of the Rising Sun
- Order of the Sacred Treasure, second class[27]
Family
edit- Parents
- Zhang Zuolin (1875–1928), father of Chang, Warlord of Manchuria, assassinated by the Japanese
- Zhao Chungui (
趙 春 桂 ) (?–1912), mother of Chang
- Spouses
- Yu Fengzhi (Chinese: 于鳳
至 ; Wade–Giles: Yu Feng Tze) (c. 1899–1990), first wife of Zhang (m. 1916; div. 1964). She immigrated to the U.S. in 1940, where she was known as Feng Tze Chang. She died in Los Angeles, CA. - Gu Ruiyu (
谷 瑞 玉 ) (1904–1946), second wife of Zhang (m. 1924; div. 1931) - Zhao Yidi (Chinese:
趙 一 荻 ; Edith Chao Chang) (1912–2000), mistress and later second wife of Zhang (m. 1964), immigrated with him to the U.S. in 1995, died in Honolulu, HI[28]
- Children
- Pauline Tao, born Chang Lu-ying (
張 閭瑛 Zhang Lüying) (c. 1916–), eldest daughter born to Yu, resides in the U.S. - Martin Chang Lu-hsun (
張 閭珣 Zhang Lüxun) (c. 1918–1986), eldest son born to Yu, died in Taipei - Raymond Chang Lu-yu (
張 閭玗 Zhang Lüyu) (c. 1919–1981), second son born to Yu, died in Los Angeles, CA - Chang Lu-chi (
張 閭琪 Zhang Lüqi) (c. 1920–1929), third son born to Yu - Robert Chang Lu-lin (
張 閭琳 Zhang Lülin) (1930–), illegitimate son born to Chao, resides in the U.S.
- Siblings
- Zhang Xueming (1908–1983), defected to the Communists, died in Beijing
- Hsueh Tseng Chang (
張 學 曾 Zhang Xuezeng) (1911–2004), died in Novato, CA - Zhang Xuesi (
張 學 思 Chang Hsueh-ssu) (1916–1970), defected to the Communists, died in China - Henry Chang Hsueh-sen (
張 學 森 Zhang Xuesen) (1920–1995), died in Beijing while visiting - Zhang Xuejun (
張 學 浚 Chang Hsueh-chun) (1922–1984), died in Taiwan - Zhang Xueying (
張 學 英 Chang Hsueh-ying) (1924–?) - Zhang Xuequan (
張 學 銓 Chang Hsueh-chuan) (1925–1992 or 1996), died in Tianjin
In popular culture
edit- Zhang was portrayed by Andy Lau in a cameo appearance in the 1994 martial arts film Drunken Master II.[citation needed]
- Zhang was centrally featured in the 1981 Chinese film The Xi'an Incident, directed by Cheng Yin. The film won three awards at the 2nd annual Golden Rooster Awards.[29]
- A 2007 TV series on the Xi'an Incident was produced and aired in mainland China, with Zhang Xueliang being portrayed by Hu Jun.[30]
- The Peter H. L. Chang reading room at Columbia University's Butler Library is named after Zhang. The library hosts a collection of Zhang's papers.[31]
- Beijing microbrewery Great Leap Brewing named its Little General IPA after Zhang.[32]
- A Chinese TV series titled Young Marshal is based on Zhang's life.[33]
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ Also known as Yu Feng-chih
- ^ Also known as Edith Chao Chang
- ^ According to other accounts, 1898 or 1900
- ^ Following the Chinese way of counting, his age is often given as 101.
References
edit- ^ a b c d e Kristof, Nicholas D. (October 19, 2001). Baquet, Dean; Louttit, Meghan; Corbett, Philip; Chang, Lian; Drake, Monica; Kahn, Joseph; Kingsbury, Kathleen; Sulzberger, A.G.; Levien, Meredith Kopit; Caputo, Roland A.; Bardeen, William; Dunbar-Johnson, Stephen; Brayton, Diane (eds.). "Zhang Xueliang, 100, Dies; Warlord and Hero of China". National news. The New York Times. Vol. CL, no. 210. p. C13. ISSN 0362-4331. OCLC 1645522. Archived from the original on October 24, 2009. Retrieved July 25, 2021.
- ^ "Tribute for Chinese hero". BBC News. October 16, 2001. Retrieved July 21, 2002.
- ^ 张学
良 老 校 长. neu.edu.cn. Archived from the original on August 16, 2012. Retrieved August 15, 2012. - ^ 张学
良 先生 今 逝世江 泽民向 其亲属 发去唁电. chinanews.com. October 15, 2001. Retrieved October 16, 2001. - ^ 伟大
的 爱国者 张学良 先生 病 逝江 泽民发唁电高度 评价张学良 先生 的 历史功 绩. people.com.cn. October 16, 2001. Archived from the original on October 27, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2001. - ^ "张学
良 小 传". www.cctv.com. Retrieved March 10, 2023. - ^ Matthews, Herbert L. (December 29, 1929). "Young Chang an Uneasy War Lord of Manchuria; Chang Hsueh-Liang". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 12, 2019.
- ^ Li, Xiaobing, ed. (2012). "Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsueh-liang) (1901-2001)". China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 531.
- ^ a b "Chiang Kai-shek | Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
- ^ Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0674033382. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
ma fuxiang.
- ^ a b Coble, Parks M. (2023). The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War. Cambridge New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-29761-5.
- ^ Shai 2012, p. 98.
- ^ Shai 2012, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Shai 2012, p. 101.
- ^ Shai 2012, p. 102.
- ^ Shai 2012, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Shai 2012, p. 113.
- ^ Shai 2012, p. 131.
- ^ Jacobs, J. Bruce (2012). Democratizing Taiwan. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-22154-3.
- ^ "Chiang Kai-shek's kidnapper makes a visit to U.S.". Daily Breeze. March 11, 1991. p. A2.
- ^ "Manchurian warlord of yore is 94 and has moved to Hawaii". The Washington Times. July 14, 1995. p. A17.
- ^ a b Kwan, Daniel (September 28, 2000). "Deng's son visits former warlord". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Fong, Tak-ho (October 23, 2001). "Political heavyweights for warlord's funeral". South China Morning Post.
- ^ "Two sides of Taiwan Strait honor warlord". The Washington Times. Kyodo News. October 26, 2001. p. A16.
- ^ a b "Chang Hsueh-liang". Who's Who in China, 3rd edition. The China Weekly Review. 1925.
- ^ Limited, Alamy. "General Chang Hsueh Liang , son of Chang Tso Lin . 1927 Stock Photo - Alamy". www.alamy.com. Retrieved November 27, 2021.
- ^ Limited, Alamy. "Opposing the Japanese in Manchuria . General Chang Hsueh Liang . He is Chinese Military Governor and is popularly known as Young Chang . 3 February 1932 Stock Photo - Alamy". www.alamy.com. Retrieved November 27, 2021.
- ^ Chao, Edith (June 25, 2000). Rong-San, Lin (ed.). "Wife of legendary Chinese warlord dies in US at 88". Local edition. Taipei Times. Vol. II, no. 270. Taipei, Taiwan: The Liberty Times Group. p. 2. ISSN 1563-9525. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021.
- ^ Cao, Junbing (2018). "Deviation and Restoration of Mundaneness and Mythological Nature in Chinese Cinema—Evolution of Chinese Directors of Different Generations over the Past Forty Years after the Reform and Opening-up Policy". Comparative Literature: East & West. 2 (2): 137.
- ^ "
西安 事 变 -搜 狗 百科 ". Sogou. Retrieved November 27, 2021. - ^ "The Peter H.L. Chang [Zhang Xueliang] and Edith Chao Chang Papers Open at The Rare Book and Manuscript Library". Columbia University. 2002-06-03. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
"35. Peter H. L. Chang (Zhang Xueliang), (1901-2001). "Recollections of Xian Incident [Review]"". Columbia University. Retrieved 2024-06-12. - ^ McDonnell, Justin (July 23, 2013). "Interview: Great Leap Brewery Founder Taps into China's Thirst for a Good Microbrew". Asia Society. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
- ^ Xu, Fan (Jan 21, 2016). "A look at the Xi'an Incident hero's formative years". China Daily. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
Further reading
edit- Mitter, Rana (February 2004). "The Last Warlord". History Today. Vol. 54, no. 2. pp. 28–33.
- Itoh, Mayumi (2016). The Making of China’s War with Japan: Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang. Springer.
- Shai, Aron (2012). Zhang Xueliang: The General Who Never Fought. Palmgrave MacMillan.
- Jin, Yilin (2005). "Yan Xishan's Activities Opposing Chiang Kai-shek and Zhang Xueliang before and after the Nanjing-Guangdong Conflict". Modern Chinese Studies. 5 (2).
- Iriye, Akira (November 1960). "Chang Hsueh-Liang and the Japanese". The Journal of Asian Studies. 20 (1). Association for Asian Studies: 33–43. doi:10.2307/2050070. JSTOR 2050070. S2CID 155052191.
- Rainer Kloubert, Warlords. Ein Bilderbogen aus dem chinesischen Bürgerkrieg, Elfenbeinverlag, Berlin 2023,ISBN 978-3-96-160-077-9.
- Matray, James I., ed. (2002). East Asia and the United States: an encyclopedia of relations since 1784 (Volume 2 ed.). Greenwood. p. 700.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Peter H.L. Chang (Zhang Xueliang) Oral History Materials at the Wayback Machine (archived 2002-10-27)
- Liu, Bernard (2022). The House Arrest of Zhang Xueliang: A Memoir of Growing Up with China's Most Famous Political Prisoner. Caruachi Press.
- Obituaries
- Heller, Richard (December 18, 2001). "Chang Hsueh-liang". The Guardian.
- "Chang Hsueh-liang". The Daily Telegraph. October 16, 2001.
- "Chang Hsueh-liang". The Economist. October 25, 2001.
- "Chang Hsueh-liang, 101; General Abducted Chiang Kai-shek in 1936". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. October 16, 2001.