View source for Neuroscience

{{Short description | Scientific study of the nervous system}}
{{For|the journal|Neuroscience (journal){{!}}''Neuroscience'' (journal)}}
{{Redirect|Brain science|other aspects of brain science|cognitive science|and|cognitive psychology|and|neurology|and|neuropsychology}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2023}}

[[File:PurkinjeCell.jpg|right|thumb|260px|Drawing by [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] (1899) of [[neuron]]s in the pigeon cerebellum]]

{{TopicTOC-Biology}}

'''Neuroscience''' is the [[science|scientific study]] of the [[nervous system]] (the [[brain]], [[spinal cord]], and [[peripheral nervous system]]), its functions, and its disorders.<ref name=Merriam>{{cite web|title=Neuroscience|work=Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/neuroscience}}</ref><ref name=DANA>{{cite web|title=Key Brain Terms Glossary|work=Dana Foundation|url=https://www.dana.org/explore-neuroscience/brain-basics/key-brain-terms-glossary/#N}}</ref><ref name=KCL>{{cite web|title=What is neuroscience?|work=King's College London. School of Neuroscience|url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/neuroscience/about/what-is-neuroscience#:~:text=At%20its%20most%20basic%2C%20neuroscience,primary%20focus%20on%20the%20brain}}</ref> It is a [[Multidisciplinary approach|multidisciplinary]] science that combines [[physiology]], [[anatomy]], [[molecular biology]], [[developmental biology]], [[cytology]], [[psychology]], [[physics]], [[computer science]], [[chemistry]], [[medicine]], [[statistics]], and [[Mathematical Modeling|mathematical modeling]] to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of [[neuron]]s, [[glia]] and [[neural circuit]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|year=2012|isbn=978-0071390118|pages=I. Overall perspective}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ea_QVG2BFy8C&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PA688|title=Lexicon of Psychiatry, Neurology and the Neurosciences|last=Ayd|first=Frank J. Jr. |date=2000|publisher=Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0781724685|page=688}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfSVcBL7CSMC&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PA59|title=Brain Imaging: What it Can (and Cannot) Tell Us About Consciousness|last=Shulman|first=Robert G.|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199838721|page=59|chapter=Neuroscience: A Multidisciplinary, Multilevel Field}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3CK4BAAAQBAJ&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PR5|title=Methods in Neuroethological Research|last1=Ogawa|first1=Hiroto|last2=Oka|first2=Kotaro|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=9784431543305|page=v}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tanner|first=Kimberly D.|date=2006-01-01|title=Issues in Neuroscience Education: Making Connections|journal=CBE: Life Sciences Education|volume=5|issue=2|page=85|doi=10.1187/cbe.06-04-0156|issn=1931-7913|pmc=1618510}}</ref> The understanding of the biological basis of [[learning]], [[memory]], [[behavior]], [[perception]], and [[consciousness]] has been described by [[Eric Kandel]] as the "epic challenge" of the [[Biology|biological sciences]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|year=2012|isbn=978-0071390118|page=5|quote=The last frontier of the biological sciences – their ultimate challenge – is to understand the biological basis of consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember.}}</ref>

The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales. The techniques used by [[neuroscientist]]s have expanded enormously, from molecular and [[cell biology|cellular]] studies of individual neurons to [[neuroimaging|imaging]] of [[Sensory neuron|sensory]], [[Motor neuron|motor]] and [[Cognition|cognitive]] tasks in the brain.

==History==
{{Main|History of neuroscience}}
[[File:Gray739.png|right|thumb|250px|Illustration from ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]'' (1918) of a lateral view of the [[human brain]], featuring the [[hippocampus]] among other neuroanatomical features]]
The earliest study of the nervous system dates to [[ancient Egypt]]. [[Trepanation]], the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the [[skull]] for the purpose of curing head injuries or [[Mental illness|mental disorders]], or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the [[Neolithic]] period. Manuscripts dating to [[1700&nbsp;BC]] indicate that the [[Egyptians]] had some knowledge about symptoms of [[brain damage]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mohamed W|date=2008|title=The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: Neuroscience in Ancient Egypt|work=IBRO History of Neuroscience|url=http://www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140706060915/http://www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-07-06|access-date=2014-07-06}}</ref>

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In [[Egypt]], from the late [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for [[Mummy|mummification]]. It was believed at the time that the [[heart]] was the seat of intelligence. According to [[Herodotus]], the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the [[skull]] is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."<ref>{{cite book|author=Herodotus|translator=George Rawlinson|date=2009|orig-year=440 BCE|title=The Histories: Book II (Euterpe)|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.mb.txt}}</ref>

The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greek]] physician [[Hippocrates]]. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g.,&nbsp;eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Breitenfeld|first1=T.|last2=Jurasic|first2=M. J.|last3=Breitenfeld|first3=D.|s2cid=2002986|date=September 2014|title=Hippocrates: the forefather of neurology|journal=Neurological Sciences|volume=35|issue=9|pages=1349–1352|doi=10.1007/s10072-014-1869-3|issn=1590-3478|pmid=25027011}}</ref> [[Plato]] also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.<ref>{{cite book|author=Plato|translator=George Rawlinson|date=2009|orig-year=360 BCE|title=Timaeus|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/timaeus.1b.txt}}</ref> [[Aristotle]], however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.<ref name=Stanley2001>{{cite book |last1 = Finger |first1 = Stanley |title = Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function |edition=3rd |publisher = Oxford University Press, USA |location = New York |date = 2001 |isbn = 978-0-19-514694-3 |pages=3–17}}</ref> This view was generally accepted until the [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Roman]] physician [[Galen]], a follower of Hippocrates and physician to [[Gladiator|Roman gladiators]], observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Freemon|first=F. R.|date=23 Sep 2009|title=Galen's ideas on neurological function|journal=Journal of the History of the Neurosciences|volume=3|issue=4|pages=263–271|doi=10.1080/09647049409525619|issn=0964-704X|pmid=11618827}}</ref>

[[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]], [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ibn Zuhr|Avenzoar]], and [[Maimonides]], active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In [[Renaissance|Renaissance Europe]], [[Vesalius]] (1514–1564), [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), [[Thomas Willis]] (1621–1675) and [[Jan Swammerdam]] (1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

[[Image:GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Golgi's method|Golgi stain]] first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.]]
[[Luigi Galvani]]'s pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying the [[Cell excitability|electrical excitability]] of muscles and neurons. In 1843 [[Emil du Bois-Reymond]] demonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emil du Bois-Reymond: Neuroscience, Self, and Society in Nineteenth-Century Germany|last=Finkelstein|first=Gabriel|publisher=The MIT Press|year=2013|isbn=9780262019507|location=Cambridge; London|pages=72–74, 89–95}}</ref> whose speed [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] proceeded to measure,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=David W.|title=Brain Asymmetry and Neural Systems Foundations in Clinical Neuroscience and Neuropsychology|date=2015|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-13068-2|pages=15–16}}</ref> and in 1875 [[Richard Caton]] found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/vlp/lit27690/index.meta&ww=0.7143&wh=0.7143&wx=0.2632|title=Caton, Richard - The electric currents of the brain|website=echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de|access-date=2018-12-21}}</ref> [[Adolf Beck (physiologist)|Adolf Beck]] published in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.<ref name="Adolf Beck pioneer">{{cite journal |last1=Coenen, Anton |last2=Edward Fine |last3=Oksana Zayachkivska |title=Adolf Beck: A Forgotten Pioneer In Electroencephalography |journal=Journal of the History of the Neurosciences |volume=23 |issue=3 |date=2014 |pages=276–286 |doi=10.1080/0964704x.2013.867600|pmid=24735457|s2cid=205664545 }}</ref> Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the [[microscope]] and the development of a [[staining|staining procedure]] by [[Camillo Golgi]] during the late 1890s. The procedure used a [[silver chromate]] salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual [[neuron]]s. His technique was used by [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] and led to the formation of the [[neuron doctrine]], the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Guillery|first1=R|title=Observations of synaptic structures: origins of the neuron doctrine and its current status|pmc=1569502|pmid=16147523|doi=10.1098/rstb.2003.1459|volume=360|issue=1458|date=Jun 2005|journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci|pages=1281–307}}</ref> Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain.

In parallel with this research, in 1815 [[Jean Pierre Flourens]] induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients by [[Marc Dax]] in 1836 and [[Paul Broca]] in 1865 suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation of [[Franz Joseph Gall]]'s theory that language was localized and that certain [[mental process|psychological functions]] were localized in specific areas of the [[cerebral cortex]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Greenblatt SH|date=1995|title=Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century|journal=Neurosurgery|volume=37|issue=4|pages=790–805|pmid=8559310|doi=10.1227/00006123-199510000-00025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bear MF|author2=Connors BW|author3=Paradiso MA|date=2001|title=Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain|edition=2nd|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-7817-3944-3}}</ref> The [[Functional specialization (brain)|localization of function]] hypothesis was supported by observations of [[epilepsy|epileptic]] patients conducted by [[John Hughlings Jackson]], who correctly inferred the organization of the [[motor cortex]] by watching the progression of seizures through the body. [[Carl Wernicke]] further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through [[history of neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, still uses the [[Brodmann areas|Brodmann]] [[Cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex|cerebral cytoarchitectonic map]] (referring to the study of [[Organelle|cell structure]]) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kandel ER|author2=Schwartz JH|author3=Jessel TM|date=2000|title=Principles of Neural Science|edition=4th|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1|title-link=Principles of Neural Science}}</ref>

During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. [[Eric Kandel]] and collaborators have cited [[David Rioch]], [[Francis O. Schmitt]], and [[Stephen Kuffler]] as having played critical roles in establishing the field.<ref name=Rioch>{{Cite journal|last1=Cowan|first1=W.M.|last2=Harter|first2=D.H.|last3=Kandel|first3=E.R.|date=2000|title=The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry|journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience|volume=23|pages=345–346|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343|pmid=10845068}}</ref> Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]], starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by [[James McGaugh|James L. McGaugh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Squire |first=Larry R. |title=The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography |date=1996 |publisher=Society for Neuroscience |isbn=0916110516 |volume=4 |location=Washington DC |page=410 |chapter=James L. McGaugh |oclc=36433905 |chapter-url=https://www.sfn.org/~/media/SfN/Documents/TheHistoryofNeuroscience/Volume%204/c11.ashx}}</ref> This was followed by the [[Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School|Department of Neurobiology]] at [[Harvard Medical School]], which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.<ref>{{cite web|title=History - Department of Neurobiology|url=http://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history|access-date=2017-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927180721/https://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history|archive-date=2019-09-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Sensory and motor homunculi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the [[Natural History Museum, London]]]]
In the process of treating [[epilepsy]], [[Wilder Penfield]] produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain.<ref>[https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/1/26/16932476/wilder-penfield-brain-surgery-epilepsy-google-doodle Wilder Penfield redrew the map of the brain — by opening the heads of living patients]</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc=3221191 | year=2011 | last1=Kumar | first1=R. | last2=Yeragani | first2=V. K. | title=Penfield – A great explorer of psyche-soma-neuroscience | journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry | volume=53 | issue=3 | pages=276–278 | doi=10.4103/0019-5545.86826 | pmid=22135453 | doi-access=free }}</ref> He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called ''The Cerebral Cortex of Man''.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/56/4/329.full.pdf |doi=10.1136/jnnp.56.4.329 |title=Penfield's homunculus: A note on cerebral cartography |year=1993 |last1=Schott |first1=G. D. |journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=329–333 |pmid=8482950 |pmc=1014945 }}</ref> Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the [[cortical homunculus]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cazala |first1=Fadwa |last2=Vienney |first2=Nicolas |last3=Stoléru |first3=Serge |title=The cortical sensory representation of genitalia in women and men: a systematic review |journal=Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology |volume=5 |doi=10.3402/snp.v5.26428 |pmc=4357265 |pmid=25766001 |date=2015-03-10 |page=26428 }}</ref>

The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] presented a [[mathematical model]] for the transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "[[action potentials]]", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the [[Hodgkin–Huxley model]]. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the [[FitzHugh–Nagumo model]]. In 1962, [[Bernard Katz]] modeled [[neurotransmission]] across the space between neurons known as [[synapses]]. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in ''[[Aplysia]]''. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the [[Morris–Lecar model]]. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous [[biological neuron model]]s and [[models of neural computation]].

As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, the [[International Brain Research Organization]] was founded in 1961,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ibro.org/history/ |title=History of IBRO|date=2010|work=International Brain Research Organization}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> the [[International Society for Neurochemistry]] in 1963,<ref>[http://www.neurochemistry.org/Information/History/TheBeginning.aspx The Beginning] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421033642/http://www.neurochemistry.org/Information/History/TheBeginning.aspx|date=April 21, 2012}}, International Society for Neurochemistry</ref> the [[European Brain and Behaviour Society]] in 1968,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html|title=About EBBS|date=2009|work=European Brain and Behaviour Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235558/http://www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[Society for Neuroscience]] in 1969.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=about_sfn|title=About SfN|work=Society for Neuroscience}}</ref> Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to [[Applied science|applied disciplines]] as [[neuroeconomics]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=How can neuroscience inform economics?|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~md3405/Working_Paper_15.pdf|journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences}}</ref> [[Educational neuroscience|neuroeducation]],<ref>Zull, J. (2002). ''The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning''. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC</ref> [[neuroethics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.neuroethicssociety.org/what-is-neuroethics|title=What is Neuroethics?|website=www.neuroethicssociety.org|access-date=2019-02-22}}</ref> and [[neurolaw]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Petoft|first=Arian|date=2015-01-05|title=Neurolaw: A brief introduction|journal=Iranian Journal of Neurology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=53–58|issn=2008-384X|pmc=4395810|pmid=25874060}}</ref>

Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Xue|last2=Markram|first2=Henry|date=2019-05-07|title=A Brief History of Simulation Neuroscience|journal= Frontiers in Neuroinformatics|volume=13|page=32|doi=10.3389/fninf.2019.00032|pmid=31133838|pmc=6513977|issn=1662-5196|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Modern neuroscience==
{{main|Outline of neuroscience}}
[[File:Nervous system diagram-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Human nervous system]]

The [[scientific method|scientific study]] of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in [[molecular biology]], [[electrophysiology]], and [[computational neuroscience]]. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the [[nervous system]] in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed.

For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single [[neuron]]. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called [[synapse]]s, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of [[axoplasm]] called an [[axon]], which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous ''system'' emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other in [[neural circuit]]s, and [[Neural network (biology)|networks]].

The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the [[central nervous system]] (defined as the [[brain]] and [[spinal cord]]), and the [[peripheral nervous system]]. In many species—including all vertebrates—the nervous system is the most [[Complex system|complex organ system]] in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The [[human brain]] alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.<ref>U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Brain basics: genes at work in the brain. Date last modified: 2018-12-27. [https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Genes-Work-Brain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020018/https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Genes-Work-Brain|date=2019-02-07}} Retrieved Feb. 4, 2019.</ref>

Due to the high degree of [[neuroplasticity|plasticity]] of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.<ref>The United States Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. "Chapter 2: The Fundamentals of Mental Health and Mental Illness" pp 38 [http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/psych205-2.2.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026104320/https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/psych205-2.2.pdf|date=2018-10-26}} Retrieved May 21, 2012</ref>

Making sense of the nervous system's dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. Ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. Analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. The specific topics that form the main focus of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in [[electron microscopy]], [[computer science]], [[electronics]], [[functional neuroimaging]], and [[genetics]] and [[genomics]] have all been major drivers of progress.

Advances in the classification of [[brain cell]]s have been enabled by electrophysiological recording, [[Single-cell sequencing|single-cell genetic sequencing]], and high-quality microscopy, which have combined into a single method pipeline called [[patch-sequencing]] in which all three methods are simultaneously applied using miniature tools.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lipovsek |first1=Marcela |last2=Bardy |first2=Cedric |last3=Cadwell |first3=Cathryn R.|display-authors=etal |title=Patch-seq: Past, Present, and Future |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |date=3 February 2021 |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=937–946 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1653-20.2020 |pmid=33431632 |pmc=7880286 }}</ref> The efficiency of this method and the large amounts of data that is generated has allowed researchers to make some general conclusions about cell types; for example that the human and mouse brain have different versions of fundamentally the same cell types.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodge |first1=Rebecca D. |last2=Bakken |first2=Trygve E. |last3=Miller |first3=Jeremy A. |display-authors=etal|title=Conserved cell types with divergent features in human versus mouse cortex |journal=Nature |date=5 September 2019 |volume=573 |issue=7772 |pages=61–68 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1506-7 |pmid=31435019 |pmc=6919571 |bibcode=2019Natur.573...61H }}</ref>

===Molecular and cellular neuroscience===
{{main|Molecular neuroscience|Cellular neuroscience}}[[Image:neuron colored.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Photograph of a [[staining|stained neuron]] in a chicken embryo]]

Basic questions addressed in [[molecular neuroscience]] include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how [[axon]]s form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from [[molecular biology]] and [[genetics]] are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://neuroscience.ucsb.edu/research/molecular-and-cellular-neuroscience |title=Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience &#124; UCSB Neuroscience &#124; UC Santa Barbara |publisher=Neuroscience.ucsb.edu |date= |accessdate=2022-08-03}}</ref> The [[morphology (biology)|morphology]], molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123971791/from-molecules-to-networks |title=From Molecules to Networks, Third Edition |publisher=Academic Press |date= 2014|isbn=9780123971791 }}</ref>

Questions addressed in [[cellular neuroscience]] include the mechanisms of how neurons process [[cell signaling|signals]] physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and how [[neurotransmitter]]s and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Neurites are thin extensions from a neuronal [[Perikaryon|cell body]], consisting of [[dendrite]]s (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and [[axon]]s (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called [[action potential]]s). Somas are the cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flynn |first1=Kevin C |title=The cytoskeleton and neurite initiation |journal=BioArchitecture |date=July 2013 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=86–109 |doi=10.4161/bioa.26259 |pmid=24002528 |pmc=4201609 }}</ref>

Another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of the [[development of the nervous system]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alberts |first1=Bruce |last2=Johnson |first2=Alexander |last3=Lewis |first3=Julian |last4=Raff |first4=Martin |last5=Roberts |first5=Keith |last6=Walter |first6=Peter |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |date=2002 |publisher=Garland Science |location=New York |isbn=9780815332183 |edition=4 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26814/ |access-date=7 August 2023 |chapter=Neural Development}}</ref> Questions include the [[Regional specification|patterning and regionalization]] of the nervous system, axonal and dendritic development, [[Growth factor|trophic interactions]], [[Synaptogenesis|synapse formation]] and the implication of [[fractone]]s in [[neural stem cell]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nascimento |first1=Marcos Assis |last2=Sorokin |first2=Lydia |last3=Coelho-Sampaio |first3=Tatiana |date=2018-04-18 |title=Fractone Bulbs Derive from Ependymal Cells and Their Laminin Composition Influence the Stem Cell Niche in the Subventricular Zone |url=https://www.jneurosci.org/content/38/16/3880 |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |language=en |volume=38 |issue=16 |pages=3880–3889 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3064-17.2018 |issn=0270-6474 |pmc=6705924 |pmid=29530987}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mercier |first=Frederic |date=2016 |title=Fractones: extracellular matrix niche controlling stem cell fate and growth factor activity in the brain in health and disease |journal=Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences |language=en |volume=73 |issue=24 |pages=4661–4674 |doi=10.1007/s00018-016-2314-y |pmid=27475964 |pmc=11108427 |s2cid=28119663 |issn=1420-682X}}</ref> [[Cellular differentiation|differentiation]] of neurons and glia ([[neurogenesis]] and [[gliogenesis]]), and [[neuronal migration]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mercier |first1=Frederic |last2=Arikawa-Hirasawa |first2=Eri |date=2012 |title=Heparan sulfate niche for cell proliferation in the adult brain |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304394011016685 |journal=Neuroscience Letters |language=en |volume=510 |issue=2 |pages=67–72 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2011.12.046|pmid=22230891 |s2cid=27352770 }}</ref>

[[Computational neurogenetic modeling]] is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes, on the cellular level (CNGM can also be used to model neural systems as well).<ref>{{cite web |title=Neuroscience Research Areas |url=https://med.nyu.edu/departments-institutes/neuroscience/research/research-areas |website=NYU Grossman School of Medicine |publisher=NYU Langone Health Neuroscience Institute |access-date=7 August 2023}}</ref>

===Neural circuits and systems===
{{main|Neural circuit|Systems neuroscience}}[[File:Leg Neural Network.jpg|thumb|Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).]]

[[Systems neuroscience]] research centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions of [[large-scale brain network]]s, or functionally-connected systems within the brain. Alongside brain development, systems neuroscience also focuses on how the structure and function of the brain enables or restricts the processing of sensory information, using learned [[mental model]]s of the world, to motivate behavior.

Questions in systems neuroscience include how [[neural circuit]]s are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as [[reflex]]es, [[multisensory integration]], [[motor coordination]], [[circadian rhythm]]s, [[emotion|emotional responses]], [[learning]], and [[memory]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tau |first1=Gregory Z |last2=Peterson |first2=Bradley S |title=Normal Development of Brain Circuits |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |date=January 2010 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=147–168 |doi=10.1038/npp.2009.115|pmid=19794405 |pmc=3055433 }}</ref> In other words, this area of research studies how connections are made and morphed in the brain, and the effect it has on human sensation, movement, attention, inhibitory control, decision-making, reasoning, memory formation, reward, and emotion regulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Menon |first1=Vinod |title=Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |date=October 2011 |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=483–506 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.003 |pmid=21908230 |s2cid=26653572 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.003 |access-date=8 August 2023}}</ref>

Specific areas of interest for the field include observations of how the structure of neural circuits effect skill acquisition, how specialized regions of the brain develop and change ([[neuroplasticity]]), and the development of brain atlases, or wiring diagrams of individual developing brains.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=Vinod |editor1-last=Hopkins |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Barr |editor2-first=Ronald G. |title=Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=2nd |url=https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6NDYwODM4 |access-date=25 September 2023 |chapter=Systems neuroscience}}</ref>

The related fields of [[neuroethology]] and [[neuropsychology]] address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific [[Ethology|animal]] and [[human behavior|human]] behaviors.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Craighead |editor1-first=W. Edward |editor2-last=Nemeroff |editor2-first=Charles B. |editor2-link=Charles Nemeroff |title=The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science |date=2004 |publisher=Wiley |url=https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MTY2ODQ3OA==. |access-date=25 September 2023 |chapter=Neuroethology}}</ref> [[Neuroendocrinology]] and [[psychoneuroimmunology]] examine interactions between the nervous system and the [[endocrinology|endocrine]] and [[immunology|immune]] systems, respectively.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Solberg Nes |first1=Lise |last2=Segerstrom |first2=Suzanne C.  |author2-link=Suzanne Segerstrom |editor1-last=Spielberger |editor1-first=Charles Donald |title=Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology |publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology |edition=1st |url=https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MjkzOTIxMQ== |access-date=25 September 2023 |chapter=Psychoneuroimmunology}}</ref> Despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complex [[cognition|cognitive processe]]s and behaviors is still poorly understood.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kaczmarek |first1=Leonard K |last2=Nadel |first2=L. |title=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science |date=2005 |publisher=Wiley |edition=1st |url=https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6Mjg2NjA0 |access-date=25 September 2023 |chapter=Neuron Doctrine}}</ref>

===Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience===
{{main|Behavioral neuroscience|Cognitive neuroscience}}

[[Cognitive neuroscience]] addresses the questions of how [[mental process|psychological functions]] are produced by [[biological neural network|neural circuitry]]. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as [[neuroimaging]] (e.g., [[fMRI]], [[Positron emission tomography|PET]], [[SPECT]]), [[electroencephalography|EEG]], [[Magnetoencephalography|MEG]], [[electrophysiology]], [[optogenetics]] and [[Human genome|human genetic analysis]] combined with sophisticated [[experimental techniques]] from [[cognitive psychology]] allows [[neuroscientist]]s and [[psychologist]]s to address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies still hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interesting interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interesting interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology.<ref>Aragona M, Kotzalidis GD, Puzella A. (2013) [http://www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2013_15_4/5Aragona_APP_4_2013.pdf The many faces of empathy, between phenomenology and neuroscience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002093723/http://www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2013_15_4/5Aragona_APP_4_2013.pdf |date=2020-10-02 }}. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4:5-12</ref> Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea of [[memory]] as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ofengenden |first1=Tzofit |year=2014 |title=Memory formation and belief |url=http://www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms-A14-03.pdf |journal=Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=34–44}}</ref>

Neuroscience is also allied with the [[social sciences|social]] and [[behavioral sciences]], as well as with nascent interdisciplinary fields. Examples of such alliances include [[neuroeconomics]], [[decision theory]], [[social neuroscience]], and [[neuromarketing]] to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated with [[Transportation theory (psychology)|narrative transportation]] into stories about [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/EJM-12-2016-0881|title = Using EEG to examine the role of attention, working memory, emotion, and imagination in narrative transportation| journal=European Journal of Marketing| volume=52| pages=92–117|year = 2018|last1 = Gordon|first1 = Ross| last2=Ciorciari| first2=Joseph| last3=Van Laer| first3=Tom |ssrn=2892967|url = https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/18069/1/PDF_Proof.PDF}}</ref>

===Computational neuroscience===
{{main|Computational neuroscience}}

Questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such as [[developmental neuroscience|development]], [[neuroanatomy|structure]], and [[cognitive neuroscience|cognitive functions]] of the brain. Research in this field utilizes [[mathematical models]], theoretical analysis, and [[computer simulation]] to describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. For example, [[biological neuron models]] are mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both the behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics of [[neural networks (biology)|neural networks]]. Computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience.

===Neuroscience and medicine===

====Clinical neuroscience====
{{Further|Clinical neuroscience}}
Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and [[pain medicine]], neuropathology, [[neuroradiology]], [[ophthalmology]], [[otolaryngology]], [[clinical neurophysiology]], [[addiction medicine]], and [[sleep medicine]] are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neurologic Diseases |url=https://medlineplus.gov/neurologicdiseases.html |website=medlineplus.gov |publisher=National Library of Medicine (NIH) |access-date=25 September 2023}}</ref>

[[Neurology]] works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS) and [[stroke]], and their medical treatment. [[Psychiatry]] focuses on [[Affect (psychology)|affective]], behavioral, [[cognition|cognitive]], and [[perception|perceptual]] disorders. [[Anesthesiology]] focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. [[Neuropathology]] focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. [[Neurosurgery]] and [[psychosurgery]] work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems.<ref>{{cite book |title=A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia |date=2021 |publisher=Ebix, inc. |location=Johns Creek (GA) |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007456.htm |access-date=25 September 2023 |language=en |chapter=Neurosciences}}</ref>

====Translational research====
{{Further|Translational research |Translational neuroscience}}
[[Image:Parasagittal MRI of human head in patient with benign familial macrocephaly prior to brain injury (ANIMATED).gif|right|thumb|An [[MRI]] of a male's head showing [[Macrocephaly#Benign or familial macrocephaly|benign familial macrocephaly]] (head circumference > 60 cm)]]

Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by [[basic research]] in neuroscience. For example, [[brain imaging]] enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time.<ref>{{cite web|author=Lepage M |date=2010 |title=Research at the Brain Imaging Centre |work=Douglas Mental Health University Institute |url=http://www.douglas.qc.ca/page/imagerie-cerebrale?locale=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305042011/http://www.douglas.qc.ca/page/imagerie-cerebrale?locale=en |archive-date=March 5, 2012}}</ref>

[[Integrative neuroscience]] describes the effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. For example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders.<ref name="gordon2003">{{cite journal|author=Gordon E|title=Integrative neuroscience.|journal=Neuropsychopharmacology|year=2003|volume=28|issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S2-8|pmid=12827137| doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1300136|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Another important area of translational research is [[brain–computer interface]]s (BCIs), or machines that are able to communicate and influence the brain. They are currently being researched for their potential to repair neural systems and restore certain cognitive functions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krucoff |first1=Max O. |last2=Rahimpour |first2=Shervin |last3=Slutzky |first3=Marc W. |last4=Edgerton |first4=V. Reggie |last5=Turner |first5=Dennis A. |title=Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |date=27 December 2016 |volume=10 |page=584 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2016.00584 |pmid=28082858 |pmc=5186786 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, some ethical considerations have to be dealt with before they are accepted.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haselager |first1=Pim |last2=Vlek |first2=Rutger |last3=Hill |first3=Jeremy |last4=Nijboer |first4=Femke |title=A note on ethical aspects of BCI |journal=Neural Networks |date=1 November 2009 |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=1352–1357 |doi=10.1016/j.neunet.2009.06.046 |pmid=19616405 |hdl=2066/77533 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nijboer |first1=Femke |last2=Clausen |first2=Jens |last3=Allison |first3=Brendan Z. |last4=Haselager |first4=Pim |title=The Asilomar Survey: Stakeholders' Opinions on Ethical Issues Related to Brain–Computer Interfacing |journal=Neuroethics |date=2013 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=541–578 |doi=10.1007/s12152-011-9132-6 |pmid=24273623 |pmc=3825606 }}</ref>

==Major branches==
Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields.
{{clear right}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ List of the major branches of neuroscience
|-
!Branch || Description
|-
| [[Affective neuroscience]]
| Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms involved in emotion, typically through experimentation on animal models.<ref>{{cite book|author=Panksepp J|chapter=A role for "affective neuroscience" in understanding stress: the case of separation distress circuitry|editor=Puglisi-Allegra S|editor2=Oliverio A|isbn=978-0-7923-0682-5|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands|pages=41–58|publisher=Kluwer Academic|title=Psychobiology of Stress|date=1990}}</ref>
|-
| [[Behavioral neuroscience]]
| Behavioral neuroscience (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology) is the application of the principles of biology to the study of genetic, physiological, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals.<ref>Thomas, R.K. (1993). "INTRODUCTION: A Biopsychology Festschrift in Honor of Lelon J. Peacock". Journal of General Psychology. 120 (1): 5.</ref>
|-
| [[Cellular neuroscience]]
| Cellular neuroscience is the study of neurons at a cellular level including morphology and physiological properties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/cellular-neuroscience|title = Cellular neuroscience - Latest research and news |work=Nature}}</ref>
|-
| [[Clinical neuroscience]]
| The [[Scientific method|scientific study]] of the biological mechanisms that underlie the disorders and diseases of the [[nervous system]].<ref name="georgetown1">{{cite web|url=https://neuro.georgetown.edu/about-neuroscience/|title=About Neuroscience}}</ref>
|-
| [[Cognitive neuroscience]]
| Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the biological mechanisms underlying cognition.<ref name="georgetown1"/>
|-
| [[Computational neuroscience]]
| Computational neuroscience is the theoretical study of the nervous system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/computational-neuroscience|title = Computational neuroscience - Latest research and news |work=Nature}}</ref>
|-
| [[Cultural neuroscience]]
| Cultural neuroscience is the study of how cultural values, practices and beliefs shape and are shaped by the mind, brain and genes across multiple timescales.<ref>Chiao, J.Y. & Ambady, N. (2007). Cultural neuroscience: Parsing universality and diversity across levels of analysis. In Kitayama, S. and Cohen, D. (Eds.) Handbook of Cultural Psychology, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 237–254.</ref>
|-
| [[Developmental neuroscience]]
| Developmental neuroscience studies the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system and seeks to describe the cellular basis of neural development to address underlying mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neuroscience.umn.edu/areas-research/developmental-neuroscience|title = Developmental Neuroscience &#124; Graduate Program in Neuroscience}}</ref>
|-
| [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]
| Evolutionary neuroscience studies the evolution of nervous systems.<ref>Eryomin A.L. (2022) [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0006350922020051 Biophysics of Evolution of Intellectual Systems // Biophysics, Vol. 67, No. 2, pp. 320–326.]</ref>
|-
| [[Molecular neuroscience]]
| Molecular neuroscience studies the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry, and related methodologies.<ref>Longstaff, Alan; Revest, Patricia (1998). Molecular Neuroscience. Garland Science. ISBN 978-1859962503.</ref>
|-
| [[Nanoneuroscience]]
| An interdisciplinary field that integrates nanotechnology and neuroscience.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pampaloni |first1=Niccolò Paolo |last2=Giugliano |first2=Michele |last3=Scaini |first3=Denis |last4=Ballerini |first4=Laura |last5=Rauti |first5=Rossana |title=Advances in Nano Neuroscience: From Nanomaterials to Nanotools |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |date=15 January 2019 |volume=12 |page=953 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2018.00953 |pmid=30697140 |pmc=6341218 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| [[Neural engineering]]
| Neural engineering uses engineering techniques to interact with, understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.embs.org/about-biomedical-engineering/our-areas-of-research/neural-engineering/|title=Neural Engineering – EMBS|access-date=2021-11-11|archive-date=2022-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619233019/https://www.embs.org/about-biomedical-engineering/our-areas-of-research/neural-engineering/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neuroanatomy]]
| Neuroanatomy is the study of the [[anatomy]] of [[nervous system]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/neuroanatomy|title=Neuroanatomy - an overview |publisher=ScienceDirect Topics}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neurochemistry]]
|Neurochemistry is the study of how [[neurochemical]]s interact and influence the function of neurons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/neurochemistry|title=Definition of NEUROCHEMISTRY|date=19 May 2023 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Neuroethology]]
| Neuroethology is the study of the neural basis of non-human animals behavior.
|-
| [[Neurogastronomy]]
| Neurogastronomy is the study of flavor and how it affects sensation, cognition, and memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neurogastronomy : how the brain creates flavor and why it matters |author1=Shepherd, Gordon M. |isbn=9780231159111|oclc=882238865|date=2013-07-16|publisher=Columbia University Press }}</ref>
|-
|[[Neurogenetics]]
|Neurogenetics is the study of the genetical basis of the development and function of the [[nervous system]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.springer.com/journal/10048|title = Neurogenetics| date=2024 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Neuroimaging]]
| Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure and function of the brain.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3389/fneur.2020.00257|doi-access=free|title=Editorial: Advances of Neuroimaging and Data Analysis|year=2020|last1=Zhang|first1=Jue|last2=Chen|first2=Kun|last3=Wang|first3=Di|last4=Gao|first4=Fei|last5=Zheng|first5=Yijia|last6=Yang|first6=Mei|journal=Frontiers in Neurology|volume=11|page=257|pmid=32322238|pmc=7156609}}</ref>
|-
|[[Neuroimmunology]]
|Neuroimmunology is concerned with the interactions between the nervous and the immune system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/neuroimmunology|title = Neuroimmunology - Latest research and news |work=Nature}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neuroinformatics]]
| Neuroinformatics is a discipline within bioinformatics that conducts the organization of neuroscience data and application of computational models and analytical tools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroinformatics|title = Frontiers in Neuroinformatics}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neurolinguistics]]
| Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.coursera.org/learn/neuroling|title=Neurolinguistics|access-date=2021-11-11|archive-date=2022-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303095846/https://www.coursera.org/learn/neuroling|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="georgetown1"/>
|-
| [[Neuro-ophthalmology]]
| Neuro-ophthalmology is an academically oriented subspecialty that merges the fields of neurology and ophthalmology, often dealing with complex systemic diseases that have manifestations in the visual system.
|-
| [[Neurophysics]]
| Neurophysics is the branch of biophysics dealing with the development and use of physical methods to gain information about the nervous system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ion/research/our-departments/neuroinflammation/research-groups-and-themes/magnetic-resonance-physics|title = Neurophysics at the ION|date = 29 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neurophysiology]]
| Neurophysiology is the study of the structure and function of the nervous system, generally using physiological techniques that include measurement and stimulation with electrodes or optically with ion- or voltage-sensitive dyes or light-sensitive channels.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-8265-8_779|doi = 10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_779|chapter = Neurophysiology|title = Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions|year = 2013|last1 = Luhmann|first1 = Heiko J.|pages = 1497–1500|isbn = 978-1-4020-8264-1}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neuropsychology]]
| Neuropsychology is a discipline that resides under the umbrellas of both psychology and neuroscience, and is involved in activities in the arenas of both basic science and applied science. In psychology, it is most closely associated with [[biopsychology]], [[clinical psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], and [[developmental psychology]]. In neuroscience, it is most closely associated with the cognitive, behavioral, social, and affective neuroscience areas. In the applied and medical domain, it is related to neurology and psychiatry.<ref>Gluck, Mark A.; Mercado, Eduardo; Myers, Catherine E. (2016). Learning and Memory: From Brain to Behavior. New York/NY, USA: Worth Publishers. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-319-15405-9.</ref>
|-
| [[Neuropsychopharmacology]]
| Neuropsychopharmacology is interdisciplinary science related to [[psychopharmacology]] and fundamental neuroscience, is the study of the neural mechanisms that drugs act upon to influence behavior.<ref>{{cite book |title=Neuropsychopharmacology : an official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology |date=2002 |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |isbn=9781469879031 |edition=Fifth |url=https://acnp.org/digital-library/neuropsychopharmacology-5th-generation-progress/|last1=Davis |first1=Kenneth L. }}</ref>
|-
|[[Paleoneurobiology]]
|Paleoneurobiology is a field that combines techniques used in paleontology and archeology to study brain evolution, especially that of the human brain.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Emiliano |last=Bruner |url=http://www.emilianobruner.it/pdf/Paleoneuro03.pdf |title=Fossil traces of the human thought: paleoneurology and the evolution of the genus ''Homo'' |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=81 |year=2003 |pages=29–56 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426012134/http://www.emilianobruner.it/pdf/Paleoneuro03.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref>
|-
| [[Social neuroscience]]
| Social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how biological systems implement social processes and behavior, and to using biological concepts and methods to inform and refine theories of social processes and behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cacioppo |first1=John T. |last2=Berntson |first2=Gary G. |last3=Decety |first3=Jean |title=Social Neuroscience and ITS Relationship to Social Psychology |journal=Social Cognition |date=2010 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=675–685 |doi=10.1521/soco.2010.28.6.675 |pmid=24409007 |pmc=3883133 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Systems neuroscience]]
| Systems neuroscience is the study of the function of neural circuits and systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://biophysics.berkeley.edu/systems-neuroscience/|title = Systems Neuroscience}}</ref>
|}

== Careers in neuroscience<ref>{{Cite web |title=Careers in Neuroscience |url=https://neurosciencemajor.osu.edu/careers-neuroscience |website=The Ohio State University}}</ref> ==

=== Bachelor's Level ===
{| class="wikitable"
|Pharmaceutical Sales
|[[Assisted living|Residential Counselor]]
|-
|Laboratory Technician
|[[Regulatory affairs|Regulatory Affairs Specialist]]
|-
|Psychometrist*
|Medical Technician*
|-
|Science Writer
|[[Clinical research associate|Clinical Research Assistant]]
|-
|Science Advocacy
|Special Education Assistant
|-
|Nonprofit Work
|[[Unlicensed assistive personnel|Patient Care Assistant]]*
|-
|Health Educator
|Orthotic and Prosthetic Technician*
|-
|EEG Technologist*
|Lab Animal Care Technician
|-
|Medical and Healthcare Manager
|Sales Engineer
|-
|Forensic Science Technician
|Law Enforcement
|-
|Pharmacy Technician*
|Natural Sciences Manager
|-
|Public Policy
|Advertising/Marketing
|}

=== Master's Level ===
{| class="wikitable"
|Nurse Practitioner
|Neuroimaging Technician
|-
|Physician's Assistant
|Teacher
|-
|Genetic Counselor
|Epidemiology
|-
|Occupational Therapist
|Biostatistician
|-
|Orthotist/Prosthetist
|Speech-Language Pathologist
|-
|Neural Engineer
|Public Health
|}

=== Advanced Degree ===
{| class="wikitable"
|Medicine (MD, DO)
|[[Sensory analysis|Food Scientist]]
|-
|Research Scientist
|Pharmacist
|-
|Dentist
|Veterinarian
|-
|Physical Therapist
|Audiologist
|-
|Optometrist
|Lawyer
|-
|Clinical Psychologist
|[[Professor]]
|-
|[[Clinical neuropsychology|Neuropsychologist]]
|Chiropractor
|}

==Neuroscience organizations==
{{See also|Category:Neuroscience organizations}}
The largest professional neuroscience organization is the [[Society for Neuroscience]] (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Financial and organizational highlights |publisher=Society for Neuroscience |url=http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/annual_report/fy2010/highlights.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915005024/http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/annual_report/fy2010/highlights.pdf |archive-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research.

Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the [[International Brain Research Organization]] (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the [[Federation of European Neuroscience Societies]] (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including the [[British Neuroscience Association]], the German Neuroscience Society ({{Lang|de|Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft}}), and the French ''{{Lang|de|Société des Neurosciences}}''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neurosciences.asso.fr/ |title=Société des Neurosciences |publisher=Neurosciences.asso.fr |date=2013-01-24 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref> The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, [[Nu Rho Psi]], was founded in 2006. Numerous youth neuroscience societies which support undergraduates, graduates and early career researchers also exist, such as Simply Neuroscience<ref>{{cite web|title=About Us|url=https://www.simplyneuroscience.org/about|access-date=2021-07-14|website=Simply Neuroscience|language=en}}</ref> and Project Encephalon.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us, Project Encephalon |url=https://www.projectencephalon.org/about-us |website=Project Encephalon |access-date=24 October 2020|language=en}}</ref>

In 2013, the [[BRAIN Initiative]] was announced in the US. The International Brain Initiative<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalbraininitiative.org/ |title=International Brain Initiative |date=2021-10-15 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref> was created in 2017,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kavlifoundation.org/international-brain-initiative|title=International Brain Initiative|publisher=The Kavli Foundation|access-date=2019-05-29|archive-date=2020-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205185836/https://www.kavlifoundation.org/international-brain-initiative|url-status=dead}}</ref> currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, [[Human Brain Project|Europe]], [[Allen Institute for Brain Science|Allen Institute]], [[Brain/MINDS|Japan]], [[China Brain Project|China]], Australia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brainalliance.org.au/|title=Australian Brain Alliance}}</ref> Canada,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canadianbrain.ca/ |title=Canadian Brain Research Strategy |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref> Korea,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kbri.re.kr/new/pages_eng/main/ |title=Korea Brain Research Institute |website=[[Korea Brain Research Institute]] |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref> and Israel<ref>{{cite web |url=http://israelbrain.org/ |title=Israel Brain Technologies |accessdate=2021-11-08 |archive-date=2020-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128181250/http://israelbrain.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rommelfanger|first1=Karen S.|last2=Jeong|first2=Sung-Jin |last3=Ema |first3=Arisa |last4=Fukushi |first4=Tamami |last5=Kasai |first5=Kiyoto |last6=Ramos |first6=Khara M. |last7=Salles |first7=Arleen |last8=Singh |first8=Ilina |last9=Amadio |first9=Jordan |date=2018 |title=Neuroethics Questions to Guide Ethical Research in the International Brain Initiatives |journal=Neuron |language=en |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=19–36 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.021 |pmid=30308169 |doi-access=free}}</ref> spanning four continents.

===Public education and outreach===
In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the [[public awareness of science|promotion of awareness and knowledge]] about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the [[International Brain Bee]], which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the International Brain Bee|work=The International Brain Bee|url=http://www.internationalbrainbee.com/about_bee.html|access-date=2010-11-01|archive-date=2013-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510005307/http://www.internationalbrainbee.com/about_bee.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts,<ref>{{cite web|title=Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System|work=Society for Neuroscience|url=http://www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=brainfacts}}</ref> collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students,<ref>{{cite web|title=Neuroscience Core Concepts: The Essential Principles of Neuroscience |work=Society for Neuroscience |url=http://www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=core_concepts |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415042331/http://www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=core_concepts |archive-date=April 15, 2012}}</ref> and cosponsoring a campaign with the [[Dana Foundation]] called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.<ref>{{cite web|title=Brain Awareness Week Campaign|work=The Dana Foundation|url=http://www.dana.org/brainweek/}}</ref> In Canada, the CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at [[McMaster University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/brainbee/ |title=Official CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee Website |access-date=24 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530074023/http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/brainbee/ |archive-date=May 30, 2014}}</ref>

Neuroscience educators formed Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) in 1992 to share best practices and provide travel awards for undergraduates presenting at Society for Neuroscience meetings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://funfaculty.org/drupal/About_FUN |title=About FUN |publisher=Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience |access-date=2018-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826150118/https://funfaculty.org/drupal/About_FUN |archive-date=2018-08-26 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called [[educational neuroscience]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Goswami U|date=2004|title=Neuroscience, education and special education|journal=British Journal of Special Education|volume=31|issue=4|pages=175–183|doi=10.1111/j.0952-3383.2004.00352.x}}</ref> Federal agencies in the United States, such as the [[National Institute of Health]] (NIH)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncrrsepa.org/ |title=The SEPA Program |publisher=[[National Institute of Health|NIH]] |access-date=September 23, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920174421/http://www.ncrrsepa.org/ |archive-date=September 20, 2011}}</ref> and [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/ehr/about.jsp|title=About Education and Human Resources|publisher=[[National Science Foundation|NSF]]|access-date=September 23, 2011}}</ref> have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts.

==Engineering applications of neuroscience==

===Neuromorphic computer chips===
[[Neuromorphic engineering]] is a branch of neuroscience that deals with creating functional [[physical model]]s of neurons for the purposes of useful computation. The emergent computational properties of neuromorphic computers are fundamentally different from conventional computers in the sense that they are a [[complex system]], and that the computational components are interrelated with no central processor.<ref>{{cite web |first=Todd |last=Hylton |url=https://rebootingcomputing.ieee.org/images/files/pdf/4-rcs2-hylton_-_intro_to_neuromorphic_computing.pdf |title=Introduction to Neuromorphic Computing Insights and Challenges |publisher=Brain Corporation}}</ref>

One example of such a computer is the [[SpiNNaker]] supercomputer.<ref name="Calimera">{{cite journal |last1=Calimera |first1=A |last2=Macii |first2=E |last3=Poncino |first3=M |title=The Human Brain Project and neuromorphic computing. |journal=Functional Neurology |date=July 2013 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=191–6 |pmid=24139655|pmc=3812737 }}</ref>

Sensors can also be made smart with neuromorphic technology. An example of this is the [[Event Camera]]'s BrainScaleS (brain-inspired Multiscale Computation in Neuromorphic Hybrid Systems), a hybrid analog neuromorphic supercomputer located at Heidelberg University in Germany. It was developed as part of the [[Human Brain Project]]'s neuromorphic computing platform and is the complement to the SpiNNaker supercomputer, which is based on digital technology. The architecture used in BrainScaleS mimics biological neurons and their connections on a physical level; additionally, since the components are made of silicon, these model neurons operate on average 864 times (24 hours of real time is 100 seconds in the machine simulation) that of their biological counterparts.<ref>{{cite web|date=2016-03-21|title=Beyond von Neumann, Neuromorphic Computing Steadily Advances|url=https://www.hpcwire.com/2016/03/21/lacking-breakthrough-neuromorphic-computing-steadily-advance/|access-date=2021-10-08|website=HPCwire|language=en-US}}</ref>

Recent advances in [[neuromorphic]] microchip technology have led a group of scientists to create an artificial neuron that can replace real neurons in diseases.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/dec/03/bionic-neurons-could-enable-implants-to-restore-failing-brain-circuits |title=Bionic neurons could enable implants to restore failing brain circuits &#124; Neuroscience |work=The Guardian |date=2019-12-03 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://interestingengineering.com/artificial-neuron-retains-electronic-memories |title=Scientists Create Artificial Neuron That Retains Electronic Memories |publisher=Interestingengineering.com |date=2021-08-06 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref>

==Nobel prizes related to neuroscience==
{{see also|List_of_biology_awards#Neuroscience|label 1=List of neuroscience awards}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Year
! scope=col | Prize field
! scope=col class=unsortable| Image
! scope=col | Laureate
! scope=col | Lifetime
! scope=col style="width: 100pt;" | Country
! scope=col class=unsortable | Rationale
! scope=col class=unsortable | Ref.
|-
| 1904
|[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Ivan Pavlov nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Pavlov, Ivan" |[[Ivan Pavlov|Ivan Petrovich Pavlov]]
| 1849–1936
| Russian Empire
| "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"
| <ref name="nobel-1904">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1906
| rowspan=2 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Camillo Golgi nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Golgi, Camilo" |[[Camillo Golgi]]
| 1843–1926
| Kingdom of Italy
| rowspan=2 | "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-1906">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Cajal-Restored.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Ramón y Cajal, Santiago" |[[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]]
| 1852–1934
| Restoration (Spain)
|-
|1911
|[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
|[[File:Allvar Gullstrand 02.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Gullstrand, Allvar" |[[Allvar Gullstrand]]
|1862– 1930
|Sweden
|"for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"
|<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1911 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1911/summary/ |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=NobelPrize.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| 1914
|[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Robert Barany.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Bárány, Robert" |[[Robert Bárány]]
| 1876–1936
| Austria-Hungary
| "for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus"
| <ref name="nobel-1914">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1914|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1914/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1932
| rowspan=2 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Prof. Charles Scott Sherrington.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Sherrington, Charles" |[[Charles Scott Sherrington]]
| 1857–1952
| United Kingdom
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-1932">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1932|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Edgar Douglas Adrian nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Adrian, Edgar" |[[Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian|Edgar Douglas Adrian]]
| 1889–1977
| United Kingdom
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1936
| rowspan=2 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Henry Dale nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Dale, Henry" |[[Henry Hallett Dale]]
| 1875–1968
| United Kingdom
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-1936">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1936/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Otto Loewi nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Loewi, Otto" |[[Otto Loewi]]
| 1873–1961
| Austria<br />Germany
|-
| 1938
| [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Corneille Heymans nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value= "Heymans, Corneille" |[[Corneille Heymans|Corneille Jean François Heymans]]
| 1892–1968
| Belgium
| "for the discovery of the role played by the [[Paranasal sinuses|sinus]] and [[aorta|aortic mechanisms]] in the regulation of [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]]"
| <ref name="nobel-1938">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1938|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1938/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930042256/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1938/index.html|archive-date=30 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1944
| rowspan=2 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Joseph Erlanger nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Erlanger, Joseph" |[[Joseph Erlanger]]
| 1874–1965
| United States
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-1944">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1944|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1944/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Herbert Spencer Gasser nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Gasser, Herbert" |[[Herbert Spencer Gasser]]
| 1888–1963
| United States
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1949
| rowspan=2 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Walter Hess.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Hess, Walter" |[[Walter Rudolf Hess]]
| 1881–1973
| Switzerland
| "for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs"
| <ref name="nobel-1949">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1949|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1949/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Moniz.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Moniz, António" |[[António Egas Moniz|António Caetano Egas Moniz]]
| 1874–1955
| Portugal
| "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses"
| <ref name="nobel-1949" />
|-
| 1955
| [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]]
| [[File:Vincent du Vigneaud.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value= "Du Vigneaud, Vincent" | [[Vincent du Vigneaud]]
| 1901–1978
| United States
| "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a [[Oxytocin|polypeptide hormone]]" (Oxytocin)
| <ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1955 | publisher = Nobelprize.org | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1955/index.html | access-date = 6 October 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081225083324/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1955/index.html | archive-date = 25 December 2008 | url-status = live }}</ref>
|-
| 1957
|[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Daniel Bovet nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Bovet, Daniel" |[[Daniel Bovet]]
| 1907–1992
| Italy
| "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles"
| <ref name="nobel-1957">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1957|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1957/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| 1961
|[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Georg von Békésy nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="von Békésy, Georg" |[[Georg von Békésy]]
| 1899–1972
| United States
| "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea"
| <ref name="nobel-1961">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1961|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1961/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1963
| rowspan=3 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Sir John Eccles Wellcome L0026812.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Eccles, John" |[[John Eccles (neurophysiologist)|John Carew Eccles]]
| 1903–1997
| Australia
| rowspan=3 | "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane"
| rowspan=3 | <ref name="nobel-1963">{{cite web|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/index.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970|publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Alan Lloyd Hodgkin nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Hodkin, Alan" |[[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]]
| 1914–1998
| United Kingdom
|-
| [[File:Andrew Fielding Huxley nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Huxley, Andrew" |[[Andrew Huxley|Andrew Fielding Huxley]]
| 1917–2012
| United Kingdom
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1967
| rowspan=3 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Ragnar Granit2.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Granit, Ragnar" |[[Ragnar Granit]]
| 1900–1991
| Finland<br />Sweden
| rowspan=3 | "for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"
| rowspan=3 | <ref name="nobel-1967">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1981/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981|publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Haldan Keffer Hartline nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Hartline, Haldan" |[[Haldan Keffer Hartline]]
| 1903–1983
| United States
|-
| [[File:George Wald nobel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Wald, George" |[[George Wald]]
| 1906–1997
| United States
|-
| rowspan="3" |1970
| rowspan="3" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
|
|scope=row data-sort-value="Axelrod" |[[Julius Axelrod]]
|1912–2004
|United States
| rowspan="3" |"for their discoveries concerning the humoral [[Neurotransmitter|transmittors in the nerve terminals]] and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
| rowspan="3" |<ref name="nobel-1963" />
|-
|[[File:Ulf von Euler.jpg|109x109px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="von Euler" |[[Ulf von Euler]]
|1905–1983
|Sweden
|-
|
|scope=row data-sort-value="Katz" |[[Bernard Katz]]
|1911–2003
|United Kingdom
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1973
| rowspan=3 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Karl von Frisch - Atelier Veritas, c. 1926.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="von Frisch, Karl" |[[Karl von Frisch]]
| 1886–1982
| Austria
| rowspan=3 | "for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"
| rowspan=3 | <ref name="nobel-1973">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819023653/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/index.html|archive-date=19 August 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Konrad Lorenz.JPG|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Lorenz, Konrad" |[[Konrad Lorenz]]
| 1903–1989
| Austria
|-
| [[File:Nikolaas Tinbergen 1978.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Tinbergen, Nikolaas" |[[Nikolaas Tinbergen]]
| 1907–1988
| Netherlands
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1977
| rowspan="2" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Roger Guillemin.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Guillemin" |[[Roger Guillemin]]
|1924–2024
| France
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries concerning the [[peptide hormone]] production of the [[brain]]"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-1977">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203080133/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/index.html|archive-date=3 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Schally portrait.jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Schally" |[[Andrew Schally|Andrew V. Schally]]
|1926–
|Poland

|-
| rowspan="3" |1981
| rowspan="3" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
|[[File:Roger Wolcott Sperry.jpg|98x98px]]
|scope="row" data-sort-value="Sperry" |[[Roger Wolcott Sperry|Roger W. Sperry]]
|1913–1994
|United States
|"for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the [[cerebral hemisphere]]s"
|<ref name="nobel-1967" />
|-
| [[File:DHUBEL.jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Hubel" |[[David H. Hubel]]
|1926–2013
|Canada
| rowspan="2" |"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the [[visual system]]"
| rowspan="2" |<ref name="nobel-1967" />
|-
|[[File:Torsten Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg|108x108px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Wiesel" |[[Torsten Wiesel|Torsten N. Wiesel]]
|1924–
|Sweden
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1986
| rowspan="2" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Stanley Cohen-Biochemist.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Cohen" |[[Stanley Cohen (biochemist)|Stanley Cohen]]
|1922–2020
| United States
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries of [[growth factor]]s"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-1986">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1986/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203100744/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1986/index.html|archive-date=3 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Rita Levi Montalcini.jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Levi-Montalcini" |[[Rita Levi-Montalcini]]
|1909–2012
|Italy
|-
| 1997
|[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
|[[File:Prusiner 1.JPG|75px]]
| scope="row" data-sort-value="Prusiner, Stanley" |[[Stanley B. Prusiner]]
| 1942–
|United States
| "for his discovery of [[Prion]]s - a new biological principle of infection"
| <ref name="nobel-1997">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010222022/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/index.html|archive-date=10 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 1997
|[[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]]
|[[File:Skou2008crop.jpg|75px]]
| scope="row" data-sort-value="Skou, Jens" |[[Jens Christian Skou|Jens C. Skou]]
| 1918–2018
|Denmark
| "for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup> -ATPase"
|<ref name="n1997">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1997/skou/biographical/|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=1 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2000
| rowspan="3" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
|[[File:Arvid Carlsson 2011a.jpg|75px]]
|scope="row" data-sort-value="Carlsson" |[[Arvid Carlsson]]
| 1923–2018
|Sweden
| rowspan="3" | "for their discoveries concerning [[signal transduction]] in the [[nervous system]]"
| rowspan="3" |<ref name="nobel-2000">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Paul Greengard.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Greengard" |[[Paul Greengard]]
| 1925–2019
| United States
|-
| [[File:Eric Kandel by aquaris3.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Kandel" |[[Eric Kandel|Eric R. Kandel]]
| 1929–
| United States
|-
| 2003
|[[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]]
| [[File:Roderick MacKinnon, M.D..jpg|75px|Roderick MacKinnon]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="MacKinnon, Roderick" | [[Roderick MacKinnon]]
| 1956–
| United States
| "for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels"
| <ref name="nobel-2003">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2003|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2003/mackinnon/biographical/|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2004
| rowspan="2" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Richard Axel.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Axel" |[[Richard Axel]]
|1946–
| United States
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries of [[odorant receptor]]s and the organization of the [[olfactory system]]"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-2004">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819024142/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/index.html|archive-date=19 August 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:LindaBuck cropped 1.jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Buck" |[[Linda B. Buck]]
|1947–
|United States
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2012
| rowspan="2" |[[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]]
| [[File:Lefkowitz3.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Lefkowitz" |[[Robert Lefkowitz]]
|1943–
| United States
| rowspan=2 | "for studies of [[G protein-coupled receptor|G-protein-coupled receptors]]""
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-2012">{{cite web| title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2012| publisher = Nobel Foundation| url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2012/index.html| access-date = 13 October 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121013000137/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2012/index.html| archive-date = 13 October 2012| url-status = live}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Brian Kobilka (649437151).jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Kobilka" |[[Brian Kobilka]]
|1955–
|United States
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2014
| rowspan=3 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:John O'Keefe (neuroscientist) 2014b.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="O'Keefe, John" |[[John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)|John O'Keefe]]
| 1939–
| United States<br />United Kingdom
| rowspan=3 | "for their discoveries of [[Place cell|place]] and [[Grid cell|grid]] cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"
| rowspan=3 | <ref name="nobel-2014">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=7 October 2013}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:May-Britt Moser 2014.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Moser, May-Britt" |[[May-Britt Moser]]
| 1963–
| Norway
|-
| [[File:Edvard Moser.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Moser, Edvard" |[[Edvard I. Moser]]
| 1962–
| Norway
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2017
| rowspan=3 |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:Jeffrey C. Hall EM1B8737 (38162359274).jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Hall, Jeffrey C" |[[Jeffrey C. Hall]]
| 1939–
| United States
| rowspan=3 | "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the [[circadian rhythm]]"
| rowspan=3 | <ref name="nobel-2017">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2017|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2017/index.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=2 October 2017}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Michael Rosbash EM1B8756 (38847326642).jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Rosbash, Michael"|[[Michael Rosbash]]
| 1944–
| United States
|-
| [[File:Michael W. Young D81 4345 (38162439194).jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Young, Michael"|[[Michael W. Young]]
| 1949–
| United States
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2021
| rowspan="2" |[[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology]]
| [[File:davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Julius"|[[David Julius]]
|1955–
| United States
| rowspan=2 | "for their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch"
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-2021">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2021/summary/|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=4 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Ardem Patapoutian at Scripps in 2022 03.jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Patapoutian" |[[Ardem Patapoutian]]
|1967–
|Lebanon
United States
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2024
| rowspan="2" |[[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]]
| [[File:John_Hopfield_2016.jpg|75px]]
| scope=row data-sort-value="Hopfield"|[[John Hopfield]]
|1933–
| United States
| rowspan=2 | “for foundational discoveries and inventions that enable [[machine learning]] with [[artificial neural networks]]”
| rowspan=2 | <ref name="nobel-2024">{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2024|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2024/press-release/|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=9 October 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_(cropped).jpg|75px]]
|scope=row data-sort-value="Hinton" |[[Geoffrey Hinton]]
|1947–
| United Kingdom
|}

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[List of neuroscience databases]]
* [[List of neuroscience journals]]
* [[List of neuroscientists]]
* [[Neurosemiotics]]
* [[Outline of brain mapping]]
* [[Outline of the human brain]]
* [[List of regions in the human brain]]
* [[Gut–brain axis]]
* [[Connectomics]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=131. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1911". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 24 May 2022.}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Bear |first=M. F. |author2=B. W. Connors |author3=M. A. Paradiso |title=Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott |date=2006 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark}}{{cite book |editor=Binder, Marc D. |editor2=Hirokawa, Nobutaka |editor3=Windhorst, Uwe |title=Encyclopedia of Neuroscience |publisher=Springer |date=2009 |isbn=978-3-540-23735-8 |url=https://www.springer.com/biomed/neuroscience/book/978-3-540-23735-8}}
* 
* {{cite book |author-link=Eric R. Kandel |last=Kandel |first=ER |author2=Schwartz JH |author3=Jessell TM |title=Principles of Neural Science |edition=5th |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1 |title-link=Principles of Neural Science}}
* Squire, L. ''et al.'' (2012). ''Fundamental Neuroscience, 4th edition''. [[Academic Press]]; {{ISBN|0-12-660303-0}}
* Byrne and Roberts (2004). ''From Molecules to Networks''. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-148660-5}}
* Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). ''Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition''. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-618621-9}}
* Siegel ''et al.'' (2005). ''Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition''. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-088397-X}}
* Rieke, F. ''et al.'' (1999). ''Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code''. [[The MIT Press]]; Reprint edition {{ISBN|0-262-68108-0}}
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=The+Cellular+Components+of+the+Nervous+System+AND+neurosci%5Bbook%5D+AND+231002%5Buid%5D&rid=neurosci. section.47 Neuroscience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212181526/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=The+Cellular+Components+of+the+Nervous+System+AND+neurosci%5Bbook%5D+AND+231002%5Buid%5D&rid=neurosci. |date=2022-12-12 }} 2nd ed. Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=Characteristics+of+the+Neuron+AND+bnchm%5Bbook%5D+AND+160014%5Buid%5D&rid=bnchm. section.18 Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212181525/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=Characteristics+of+the+Neuron+AND+bnchm%5Bbook%5D+AND+160014%5Buid%5D&rid=bnchm. |date=2022-12-12 }} 6th ed. by George J. Siegel, Bernard W. Agranoff, R. Wayne Albers, Stephen K. Fisher, Michael D. Uhler, editors. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.
* {{cite book |last=Andreasen |first=Nancy C. |author-link=Nancy C. Andreasen |title=Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=March 4, 2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/bravenewbraincon00andr |isbn=978-0-19-514509-0}}
* Damasio, A. R. (1994). ''Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. '' New York, [[Avon (publishers)|Avon Books]]. {{ISBN|0-399-13894-3}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-380-72647-5}} (Paperback)
* Gardner, H. (1976). ''The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. '' New York, [[Random House|Vintage Books]], 1976 {{ISBN|0-394-71946-8}}
* Goldstein, K. (2000). ''The Organism. '' New York, Zone Books. {{ISBN|0-942299-96-5}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-942299-97-3}} (Paperback)
* {{cite book |last=Lauwereyns |first=Jan |author-link= |title=The Anatomy of Bias: How Neural Circuits Weigh the Options |publisher=The MIT Press |date=February 2010 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |url=http://mitp-content-server.mit.edu:18180/books/content/sectbyfn?collid=books_pres_0&id=7980&fn=9780262123105_sch_0001.pdf |isbn=978-0-262-12310-5}}
* [[Subhash Kak]], The Architecture of Knowledge: Quantum Mechanics, Neuroscience, Computers and Consciousness, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004, {{ISBN|81-87586-12-5}}
* Llinas R. (2001). ''[[I of the vortex: from neurons to self]]'' MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-12233-2}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-262-62163-0}} (Paperback)
* Luria, A. R. (1997). ''The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. '' [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-224-00792-0}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-674-54625-3}} (Paperback)
* Luria, A. R. (1998). ''The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. '' New York, [[Basic Books]], Inc. {{ISBN|0-674-57622-5}}
* Medina, J. (2008). ''Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School. ''Seattle, Pear Press. {{ISBN|0-9797777-0-4}} (Hardcover with DVD)
* Pinker, S. (1999). ''How the Mind Works. '' [[W. W. Norton]] & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-31848-6}}
* Pinker, S. (2002). ''The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. '' Viking Adult. {{ISBN|0-670-03151-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=D. L. |title=Brain, Mind and Behaviour: A New Perspective on Human Nature |location=Dundalk, Ireland |publisher=Pontoon Publications |date=2009 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-9561812-0-6}}
* Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R., Kak, S., & Tao, L. (2011). Consciousness and the universe: Quantum physics, evolution, brain & mind. Cambridge, MA: Cosmology Science Publishers.
* Ramachandran, V. S. (1998). ''[[Phantoms in the Brain]]''. New York, HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-688-15247-3}} (Paperback)
* Rose, S. (2006). ''21st Century Brain: Explaining, Mending & Manipulating the Mind'' {{ISBN|0-09-942977-2}} (Paperback)
* Sacks, O. ''[[The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat]]''. Summit Books {{ISBN|0-671-55471-9}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-06-097079-0}} (Paperback)
* Sacks, O. (1990). ''Awakenings. '' New York, Vintage Books. (See also [[Oliver Sacks]]) {{ISBN|0-671-64834-9}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-06-097368-4}} (Paperback)
* [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Neuroscience Encyclopedia:Neuroscience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222104731/http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Neuroscience |date=2020-02-22 }} [[Scholarpedia]] Expert articles
* Sternberg, E. (2007) ''Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. '' Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
* Churchland, P. S. (2011) [http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/What-neuroscience-tells-us-about-morality.php ''Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034251/http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/What-neuroscience-tells-us-about-morality.php |date=2020-11-12 }}. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-13703-X}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Selvin |first1=Paul |year=2014 |title=Hot Topics presentation: New Small Quantum Dots for Neuroscience |url=http://spie.org/x106518.xml |journal=SPIE Newsroom |doi=10.1117/2.3201403.17}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Topic: Neuroscience}}
{{Wikibooks|Neuroscience}}
{{Wiktionary|neuroscience}}
<!-- Here are the rules: the only things that belong here are pointers to major Neuroscience organizations and to sites that directly contain a substantial amount of useful information. Anything else should be added to the Open Directory list at http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Biology/Neurobiology/ Neurobiology. Neuroanatomy sites should be added to [[brain]] or [[nervous system]] instead of here. This list will be rigorously maintained! -->
{{Commons category|Neuroscience|lcfirst=yes}}
* {{In Our Time|Neuroscience|b00fbd26|Neuroscience}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070125124755/http://www.neuinfo.org/ Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF)]
* [http://www.asneurochem.org/ American Society for Neurochemistry]
* [http://www.bna.org.uk/ British Neuroscience Association (BNA)]
* [http://www.fens.org/ Federation of European Neuroscience Societies]
* [http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/ Neuroscience Online (electronic neuroscience textbook)]
<!-- Doesn't work* [http://www.funfaculty.org/drupal/ Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN)] -->
<!-- Promotional *[http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for Kids] -->
* [http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/neuroscience/lectures.html HHMI Neuroscience lecture series - ''Making Your Mind: Molecules, Motion, and Memory''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624074247/http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/neuroscience/lectures.html |date=2013-06-24 }}
* [http://www.neurosciences.asso.fr/ ''Société des Neurosciences'']
* [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience For Kids]

{{Neuroscience}}
{{Nervous system}}
{{Biology-footer}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Neuroscience| ]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Nervous system]]
[[Category:Neurophysiology]]