View source for Seattle Fault

{{Short description|Zone of multiple thrust faults that passes through Seattle}}
{{Infobox fault
| name              = Seattle Fault
| other_name        = 
| namedfor          = [[Seattle]]
| namedby           = 
| yeardef           = 
| image             = Seattle Fault.jpg
| image_size        = 
| image_alt         = 
| image_caption     = The Seattle Fault cuts across [[Puget Sound]] and into [[Seattle]] itself.  Restoration Point in the foreground, Alki Point is barely seen at the right edge of the picture.
| pushpin_map       = 
| pushpin_map_width = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| pushpin_map_alt   = 
| pushpin_relief    = 
| pushpin_map_label = 
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_mark      = 
| pushpin_mark_size = 
| location          = 
| country           = United States
| region            = 
| state             = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
| cities            = [[Seattle]]
| coordinates       = {{coord|47.610|N|122.333|W|display=inline,title}}
| elevation         = 
| elevation_m       = 
| elevation_ft      = 
| elevation_ref     = 
| topdepth_m        = 
| topdepth_ft       = 
| topdepth_ref      = 
| range             = 
| part_of           = [[Puget Sound faults]]
| segments          = 
| length            = {{convert|70|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| width             = 
| depth             = 
| strike            = <!--missing, example: 013.5 ± 7-->
| dip               = <!--missing, example: East-->
| dip_angle         = <!--missing, example: 15-25-->
| displacement      = <!--missing, example: {{convert|760|m|ft}}-->
| plate             = [[North American Plate|North American]]
| status            = Active
| earthquakes       = [[Seattle Fault#Notable earthquake|{{circa}} 900 CE]]
| type              = [[Thrust fault]]
| movement          = Reverse
| rockunit          = <!--missing-->
| age               = [[Eocene]]-recent (40-0 Ma)
| orogeny           = 
| volcanic_arc/belt = 
| map_image         = 
| map_caption       = 
}}
The '''Seattle Fault''' is a zone of multiple shallow east–west [[thrust fault]]s that cross the Puget Sound Lowland and through [[Seattle]] (in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]]) in the vicinity of [[Interstate 90 in Washington|Interstate Highway 90]]. The Seattle Fault was first recognized as a significant seismic hazard in 1992, when a set of reports showed that about 1,100 years ago it was the scene of a major [[earthquake]] of about magnitude 7 – an event that entered Native American oral traditions.  Extensive research has since shown the Seattle Fault to be part of a [[Puget Sound faults|regional system of faults]].

== Notable earthquake ==
{{See also|Lake Washington sunken forests}}
First suspected from mapping of gravitational anomalies in 1965<ref>{{Harvnb|Danes|others|1965}}.</ref> and an uplifted [[marine terrace]] at Restoration Point (foreground in picture above), the Seattle Fault's existence and likely hazard were definitively established by a set of five reports published in ''Science'' in 1992.  These reports looked at the timing of abrupt uplift and subsidence around Restoration Point and [[Alki Point, Seattle|Alki Point]] (distant right side of picture),<ref>{{Harvnb|Bucknam|others|1992}}.</ref> [[tsunami deposit]]s on Puget Sound,<ref>{{Harvnb|Atwater|Moore|1992}}.</ref> turbidity in lake paleosediments,<ref>{{Harvnb|Karlin|Abella|1992}}.</ref> rock avalanches,<ref>{{Harvnb|Schuster|others|1992}}.</ref> and multiple landslides around Lake Washington,<ref>{{Harvnb|Jacoby|others|1992}}.</ref> and determined that all these happened about 1,100 years ago (between 923 and 924 [[Common Era|CE]],<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1126/sciadv.adh4973 | date=2023 | volume=9 | issue=39 | last1=Black | first1=Bryan A. | last2=Pearl | first2=Jessie K. | last3=Pearson | first3=Charlotte L. | last4=Pringle | first4=Patrick T. | last5=Frank | first5=David C. | last6=Page | first6=Morgan T. | last7=Buckley | first7=Brendan M. | last8=Cook | first8=Edward R. | last9=Harley | first9=Grant L. | last10=King | first10=Karen J. | last11=Hughes | first11=Jonathan F. | last12=Reynolds | first12=David J. | last13=Sherrod | first13=Brian L. | title=A multifault earthquake threat for the Seattle metropolitan region revealed by mass tree mortality | journal=Science Advances | pages=eadh4973 | pmid=37756412 | pmc=10530078 | bibcode=2023SciA....9H4973B }}</ref> and most likely due to an earthquake of magnitude 7 or greater on the Seattle Fault.
[[File:ayahos3.png|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Representation of the a'yahos spirit.]]

Although the 923-924 CE earthquake was over a thousand years ago, local traditional stories have preserved an association of a powerful supernatural spirit – a'yahos, noted for shaking, rushes of water, and landsliding – with five locales along the trace of the Seattle Fault, including a "spirit boulder" called [[Psai-Yah-hus]] near the [[Fauntleroy, Seattle|Fauntleroy]] ferry dock in West Seattle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludwin|others|2005}}; {{Harvnb|Buerge|1985}}.</ref>
{{clear}}

== Geology ==
[[File:Seattle Fault location.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Approximate location of the Seattle Fault Zone (and other faults). The section of the fault zone directly under "Seattle" corresponds to the red line in the photo at the top. (DGER<ref>Excerpt from DGER Geological Map {{Harvnb|GM-52}}</ref>)]]
[[File:Seattle uplift 17D.png|thumb|upright=1.2|One model of the Seattle Uplift: Cross-section (south to north) along the east side of central Puget Sound, looking west. TB = Tacoma Basin EPZ = East Passage Zone (Maury Island), SFZ = Seattle Fault Zone (Alki Point). Grey dots are hypocenters of earthquakes of magnitude 2 or more for 1970–2001. (Fig. 17D from {{Harvnb|Johnson|others|2004}})]]

The Seattle Fault is the structural boundary where 50–60 million years old (early [[Tertiary]]) [[basalt]] of the Crescent Formation on the south has been uplifted – the Seattle Uplift – and is tipping into the Seattle Basin, where the Tertiary bedrock is buried under at least {{convert|7|km|abbr=in}} of relatively softer, lighter sedimentary strata of the younger Blakeley and Blakely Harbor formations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, p.27,471; {{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1994}}, p.72; {{Harvnb|Nelson|others|2003}}, p.1389.</ref>  This has resulted in a {{convert|4|to|7|km|abbr=in}} wide zone of complex faulting, with three or more main south-dipping [[thrust fault]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|QFFDB Fault 570}}</ref>  Most of the faulting is "blind" (not reaching the surface), and generally difficult to locate because of heavy vegetation or development.  Three principal strands have been identified, their location determined by high-resolution [[Reflection seismology|seismic reflection]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1999}}.</ref> and [[Aeromagnetic survey|aeromagnetic]] surveys.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}.</ref>  The northernmost strand lies nearly along Interstate 90 and then under [[Lake Sammamish]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}, p.170.</ref> The central section of the fault zone – where it crosses the apparent location of the [[Olympic–Wallowa Lineament]] – shows marked variation in the location of the strands and of the underlying structure, but the nature and significance of this is not understood.

The fault extends for approximately 70&nbsp;km (43&nbsp;miles)<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}, p.170; {{Harvnb|QFFDB Fault 570}}.</ref> from near [[Fall City, Washington|Fall City]] on the east, where it appears to be terminated by the [[Puget Sound faults#SWIF|South Whidbey Island Fault]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Dragovich|others|2009}}, GM-73.</ref> to [[Hood Canal]] on the west<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009}}, p.118; {{Harvnb|Liberty|2009}}.</ref> (not shown on the map). However, boundaries defining the western termination zone is currently unclear (see [[Puget Sound faults#Question of western termination]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Anderson|others|2008}}</ref>).  It is the northern edge of the Seattle Uplift, of which the [[Tacoma Fault]] is the southern edge.  One model has the Seattle and Tacoma faults converging at depth to form a wedge, which is being popped up by approximately north–south oriented compression that ultimately derives from plate tectonics.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, p.13,558.</ref>  Another model (see diagram) interprets the Seattle Uplift as a sheet of rock that is being forced up a ramp.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, §&nbsp;4.3 and figure 2.</ref>  Subsequent work suggests that the structure of the Seattle Fault may vary from east to west, with both models being applicable in different sections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|2004}}, §&nbsp;72.</ref>  A later model has part of the north-thrusting sheet forming a wedge between the sedimentary formations of the Seattle Basin and the underlying bedrock.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kelsey|others|2008}}. See also {{Harvnb|Nelson|others|2003}}.</ref>

The Seattle Fault is believed to date from about 40 million years ago (late [[Eocene]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, p.27,481; {{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}, p.169.</ref>  This is about the time that the strike-slip movement on the north-striking [[Straight Creek Fault]] to the east ceased, due to the intrusions of [[pluton]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vance|Miller|1994}}; {{Harvnb|Tabor|others|1984}}, pp.26, 43.</ref>  It appears that when the Straight Creek Fault became stuck the north–south compressive force that it had accommodated by strike-slip motion was transferred to the crust of the Puget Lowland, which subsequently folded and faulted, and the various blocks jammed over one another.

Other scarps associated with the Seattle fault have been identified by [[LIDAR]]-based mapping;<ref>{{Harvnb|Haugerud|others|2003}}.</ref> trenching has generally shown the faulting to be more complex than was first realized.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nelson|others|2003}}, p.1389.</ref> Many of the details of the Seattle Fault, including recurrence rate, remain to be resolved.  A study of sediments in Lake Washington found evidence of seven large (M > 7) earthquakes in the last 3,500 years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Karlin|Abella|1992}}, p.1619; {{Harvnb|Karlin|others|2004}}.</ref>

Surface [[fault scarp|scarps]] due to faulting are rarely observed in this area (due to topography, vegetation, and urbanization); a rare exception can be seen at Mee Kwa Mooks Park south of [[Alki Point, Seattle|Alki Point]]. This is the site of the ''West Seattle Fault''; the prominent rise there is due to uplift on the north side of the fault.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kelsey|others|2008}}, p.1588; {{Harvnb|Troost|Booth|2004}}.</ref>

== Hazard ==
[[File:Port-au-Prince harbour crane after 2010 earthquake.jpg|thumb|Shipping-container crane at [[Port-au-Prince]] (Haiti) harbor leaning after earthquake-induced ground failure. Seattle's waterfront faces similar risk]]
<!--  This needs to be bigger than thumbnail, else it has negligible impact. -->

The Seattle Fault (and the related Tacoma Fault) is not the only source of earthquake hazard in the Puget Lowland.  Other faults in the near surface continental crust, such as the [[Puget Sound faults#SWIF|South Whidbey Island Fault]] (near Everett), and the yet to be studied [[Puget Sound faults#OS|Olympia Fault]] (near Olympia), though historically quiescent, are suspected of generating earthquakes of around magnitude 7.  Others, such as the [[2001 Nisqually earthquake]], originate about {{convert|50|to|60|km|abbr=in}} below Puget Sound in the [[Wadati–Benioff zone|Benioff zone]] of the subducting [[Juan de Fuca Plate]]; being so deep their energy is dissipated.  And there are the infrequent but very powerful great subduction events, such as the magnitude 9 [[1700 Cascadia earthquake]], where the entire [[Cascadia subduction zone]], from [[Cape Mendocino]] to [[Vancouver Island]], slips.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bucknam|others|1992}}, p.&nbsp;1611;  {{Harvnb|Fisher|others|2005}}, p.&nbsp;8.</ref>

But the Seattle and Tacoma faults are probably the most serious earthquake threat to the populous Seattle–Tacoma area.  A 2002 study of bridge vulnerability estimated that a magnitude 7 earthquake on the Seattle Fault would damage approximately 80 bridges in the Seattle–Tacoma area,<ref>{{Harvnb|Ballantyne|others|2002}}, p.9.</ref>  whereas a magnitude 9 subduction event would damage only around 87 bridges in all of Western Washington.<ref>The much greater energy of subduction earthquake is spread out over a larger area, and concentrated mainly on the coast, where there is less development.</ref> The same study also found that with failure of just six bridges (the minimum damage for a Benioff M 6.5 event) there could be at least $3&nbsp;billion lost in business revenue alone.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ballantyne|others|2002}}, p.11.</ref>  Subsequent retrofitting by the [[Washington Department of Transportation]] and the City of Seattle would likely reduce damage to key bridges. But there is concern that such an earthquake on the Seattle Fault would devastate [[Unreinforced masonry building|unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings]], of which the City of Seattle is estimated to have around a thousand, concentrated in [[Capitol Hill, Seattle|Capitol Hill]], [[Pioneer Square, Seattle|Pioneer Square]], and the [[Chinatown–International District, Seattle|International District]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Swanson|Findlay|2007}}, "Executive Summary", §&nbsp;2.1.3, and figure 2.</ref>

[[File:Seattle - Earthquake damage to Cadillac Hotel 2nd Ave S in Pioneer Square, 2001.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Damage to a masonry building (Cadillac Hotel) in Seattle, from the [[2001 Nisqually earthquake]]]]
Other recent work<ref>{{Harvnb|Kelsey|others|2008}}, p. 1596.</ref> indicates that the Seattle Fault can generate two types of earthquakes; both pose "considerable hazard" to the Seattle metropolitan region.  The A.D. 900–930 earthquake is believed to be the only instance in the past 7,000 years of the type that causes a regional uplift.  The other type is more localized and shallower (and therefore more damaging); at least four such events are believed to have occurred in the past 3,000 years on the west end of the fault. (The history of the central and eastern segments is not known.)

Calculations based on fault length and [[paleoseismological]] studies show that the Seattle Fault can generate a very damaging magnitude 7.0 earthquake.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bucknam|others|1992}}, p. 1613.</ref>   In addition to extensive damage to unreinforced structures and structures built on fill (such as much of Seattle's Pioneer Square area, the industrial area, and the waterfront), computer modeling has shown that such earthquakes could cause a tsunami of about {{convert|2|m|abbr=in}} high on [[Elliott Bay]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Koshimura|Mofjeld|2001}}, p. 872.</ref>  The modeling shows that such a tsunami would also inundate the industrial areas on [[Commencement Bay]] 30&nbsp;miles south (Tacoma) and low-lying areas on the Puyallup River delta.<ref>{{Harvnb|Walsh|others|2009}}.</ref> There is also concern that a severe or prolonged event could cause failure of the [[Duwamish River|Duwamish]] or [[Puyallup River]] deltas, where the main port facilities for Seattle and Tacoma are located (Harbor Island and Commencement Bay).<ref>{{Harvnb|Gonzalez|others|2003}}, §&nbsp;3; {{Harvnb|Kayen|Barnhardt|2007}}.</ref>
{{clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Geology of the Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Tacoma Fault]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|24em}}

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==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last1=Moore | first1=G. L. | last2=Roland | first2=E. | last3=Bennett | first3=S. E. K. | last4=Watt | first4=J. | last5=Kluesner | first5=J. | last6=Brothers | first6=D. | last7=Myers | first7=E. | title=High-Resolution Marine Seismic Imaging of the Seattle Fault Zone: Near-Surface Insights into Fault Zone Geometry, Quaternary Deformation, and Long-Term Evolution | journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America | date=2022 | volume=112 | issue=5 | pages=2715–2744 | issn=0037-1106 | doi=10.1785/0120220013| bibcode=2022BuSSA.112.2715M | s2cid=251698220 }}

== External links ==
* [http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1560/p1560po.pdf USGS Professional Paper 1560: Assessing Earthquake Hazards and Reducing Risk in the Pacific Northwest] Technical, but readable.  And has many good pictures.
* [https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/pacnw/  USGS: Reducing Earthquake Hazards in the Pacific Northwest]
* [https://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/groundmotion/movies USGS: Earthquake ground motion movies]
* {{citation | url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002185299_earthquake20m.html | title=Pinpointing devastation if Seattle Fault ruptures | newspaper=Seattle Times | date=2005-02-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050222022758/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002185299_earthquake20m.html | archive-date=2005-02-22 | access-date=2019-01-15 }}
* [http://www.eeri.org/projects/earthquake-scenarios/seattle-fault-scenario/ Scenario for a Magnitude 6.7 Earthquake on the Seattle Fault]  Vivid and comprehensive.
* [http://www.pwri.go.jp/eng/ujnr/tc/g/pdf/21/21-9-2kapur.pdf Washington State's Bridge Seismic Retrofit Program]
* [http://www.vashonbeprepared.org/media/VashonEarthquakeStudy.pdf Earthquake Study: Four Vashon-Specific Scenarios] Considerations for all islands.
* [http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/pugetsound/pre2/ Puget Sound Tsunami Inundation Modeling (NOAA)]
* [http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_ofr2003-14_tsunami_hazard_elliottbay.pdf Elliott Bay inundation map (DNR)]
* [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/PDF/wals2794/wals2794.pdf Tsunami Hazard Map of the Elliott Bay Area (NOAA)]
* [http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ Additional inundation maps (DNR Publications)]
* [http://pugetsoundlidar.ess.washington.edu/faults Puget Sound Lidar Consortium] Use of Lidar for locating faults.

{{Faults}}

{{good article}}

[[Category:Geography of Seattle]]
[[Category:Seismic faults of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Buried rupture earthquakes]]