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During the 1920s, swathes of the South and North Kivu's territories were adjudged sparsely populated, prompting the Belgian colonial administrators to enlist labor from extraneous locales to foster regional development. This incitement culminated in the relocation of [[Banyarwanda]] to the [[Kivu]] highlands from the late 1930s through the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Commission pour l'Étude du problème de la main-d'oeuvre au Congo Belge |title=Rapport du Sous-Comité de la Province Orientale du Comité Consultatif de la main-d'oeuvre |year=1929 |location=Belgium |pages=257–265 |language=French}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cosma |first1=Wilungula B. |last2=Vellut |first2=Jean-Luc |date=1997 |title=Fizi 1967 - 1986: Le Maquis Kabila |url=https://www.congoforum.be/Upldocs/Maquis%20PRP%20Fizi%201967%201886%20Wilungula.pdf |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=Institut Africain CEDAF |language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Official Records of the ... Session of the General Assembly Supplement: Issues 12-16 |publisher=University of Iowa |year=1978 |location=Iowa City, Iowa, United States |pages=30 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last1=Verweijen |first1=Judith |last2=Twaibu |first2=Juvénal |last3=Ribakare |first3=Moïse |last4=Bulamba |first4=Paul |last5=Kasongo |first5=Freddy Mwambi |date=April 2021 |title=Mayhem In The Mountains: How Violent Conflict on The Hauts Pleateux of South Kivu Escalated |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/174098/1/05_GIC_Mayhem-in-the-mountains_WEB-2.pdf |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=whiterose.ac.uk/ |page=16}}</ref> This demographic shift engendered profound sociocultural ramifications within the region, particularly in Minembwe. Nevertheless, the assimilation process was fraught with discord. Ethnic antagonisms erupted between the Banyarwanda and other indigenous ethnic communities, notably the Babembe, exacerbated by land disputes, resource competition, and politico-strategic rivalries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spitaels |first=R |title=Transplantation de Banyarwanda au Kivu", Problèmes d'Afrique Centrale |year=1953 |location=Brussels, Belgium |pages=110 |language=French}}</ref> In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by [[Political decay|political instability]] in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndeshio Rurihose |first=O. |title=La nationalité de la population zaïroise d'expression kinyarwanda au regard de la loi du 26 June 1991 |date=June 1992 |location=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo |pages=9–15 |language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cahiers_africains/ZGEEAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=banyarwanda%20lulenge |title=Cahiers Africains, Issues 26-30 |date=1997 |publisher=Centre d'Étude et de Documentation Africains (CEDAF) |isbn=978-2-7384-5961-9 |location=Brussels, Belgium |pages=26–118 |language=fr}}</ref> Parenthetically, during the [[Rwandan Revolution|Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961]], the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UN High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of [[Lemera]], [[Mulenge]], and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the [[South Kivu|South]] and [[North Kivu]] regions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mararo |first=Bucyalimwe |date=1997 |title=Land, Power, and Ethnic Conflict in Masisi (Congo-Kinshasa), 1940s-1994 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/220574 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=503–538 |doi=10.2307/220574 |jstor=220574 |issn=0361-7882}}</ref>[[File:Mobutu.jpg|left|thumb|Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical [[abacost]] in 1983]]
During the 1920s, swathes of the South and North Kivu's territories were adjudged sparsely populated, prompting the Belgian colonial administrators to enlist labor from extraneous locales to foster regional development. This incitement culminated in the relocation of [[Banyarwanda]] to the [[Kivu]] highlands from the late 1930s through the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Commission pour l'Étude du problème de la main-d'oeuvre au Congo Belge |title=Rapport du Sous-Comité de la Province Orientale du Comité Consultatif de la main-d'oeuvre |year=1929 |location=Belgium |pages=257–265 |language=French}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cosma |first1=Wilungula B. |last2=Vellut |first2=Jean-Luc |date=1997 |title=Fizi 1967 - 1986: Le Maquis Kabila |url=https://www.congoforum.be/Upldocs/Maquis%20PRP%20Fizi%201967%201886%20Wilungula.pdf |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=Institut Africain CEDAF |language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Official Records of the ... Session of the General Assembly Supplement: Issues 12-16 |publisher=University of Iowa |year=1978 |location=Iowa City, Iowa, United States |pages=30 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last1=Verweijen |first1=Judith |last2=Twaibu |first2=Juvénal |last3=Ribakare |first3=Moïse |last4=Bulamba |first4=Paul |last5=Kasongo |first5=Freddy Mwambi |date=April 2021 |title=Mayhem In The Mountains: How Violent Conflict on The Hauts Pleateux of South Kivu Escalated |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/174098/1/05_GIC_Mayhem-in-the-mountains_WEB-2.pdf |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=whiterose.ac.uk/ |page=16}}</ref> This demographic shift engendered profound sociocultural ramifications within the region, particularly in Minembwe. Nevertheless, the assimilation process was fraught with discord. Ethnic antagonisms erupted between the Banyarwanda and other indigenous ethnic communities, notably the Babembe, exacerbated by land disputes, resource competition, and politico-strategic rivalries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spitaels |first=R |title=Transplantation de Banyarwanda au Kivu", Problèmes d'Afrique Centrale |year=1953 |location=Brussels, Belgium |pages=110 |language=French}}</ref> In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by [[Political decay|political instability]] in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndeshio Rurihose |first=O. |title=La nationalité de la population zaïroise d'expression kinyarwanda au regard de la loi du 26 June 1991 |date=June 1992 |location=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo |pages=9–15 |language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cahiers_africains/ZGEEAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=banyarwanda%20lulenge |title=Cahiers Africains, Issues 26-30 |date=1997 |publisher=Centre d'Étude et de Documentation Africains (CEDAF) |isbn=978-2-7384-5961-9 |location=Brussels, Belgium |pages=26–118 |language=fr}}</ref> Parenthetically, during the [[Rwandan Revolution|Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961]], the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UN High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of [[Lemera]], [[Mulenge]], and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the [[South Kivu|South]] and [[North Kivu]] regions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mararo |first=Bucyalimwe |date=1997 |title=Land, Power, and Ethnic Conflict in Masisi (Congo-Kinshasa), 1940s-1994 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/220574 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=503–538 |doi=10.2307/220574 |jstor=220574 |issn=0361-7882}}</ref>[[File:Mobutu.jpg|left|thumb|Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical [[abacost]] in 1983]]
The Banyarwanda who settled in Lulenge from the late 1950s to the 1980s, alongside earlier migrants to the eastern [[Congo Free State]] in the nineteenth century, collectively known as "[[Banyamulenge]]," aspired to establish their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were required to meet criteria set by the Belgian colonial authorities and later upheld by the Congolese state post-independence to be recognized as a distinct ethnic group. These criteria included possessing a native language, a chieftainship to represent the tribe, and a [[List of territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|well-defined territory]] acknowledged by neighboring tribes. Despite their mother tongue being Kinyarwanda, the Banyarwanda lacked both a chieftainship and a defined territory, which disqualified them from being recognized as a Congolese tribe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heyse |first=T. |date=January 1938 |title=Concentration et Déconcentration au Congo Belge |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002085233801100401 |journal=Progress in Public Administration |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–624 |doi=10.1177/002085233801100401 |issn=0552-3060 |s2cid=189496214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Laddersous |first=Alfred Moeller |title=De certaines formes de participation des indigènes à l'administration de notre colonie |year=1927 |pages=262–266 |language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gana |first=Aaron Tsado |title=Federalism in Africa, Volume 2 |publisher=Africa World Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781592210800 |location=Trenton, New Jersey |pages=18–19 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngbanda |first=Honoré |date=August 23, 2019 |title=The truth about the war in Minembwe |url=https://www.info-apareco.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/MEMORANDUM-APARECO_-THE-TRUTH-ABOUT-THE-WAR-IN-MINEMBWE-.pdf |access-date=June 15, 2024 |website=APARECO |pages=6–9 |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> The term "Banyamulenge" was absent from colonial records, and they were primarily identified as "Banyarwanda," denoting their Rwandan origins. It was only post-independence in 1960 that the classification of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased under Belgian colonial documentation. The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, Banyamulenge were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda," denoting their status as migrant with Rwanda origins. It wasn't until the early 1970s that the categorization of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased during the [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] administration.<ref name="BBC News Afrique"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lemarchand |first=René |date=May 1999 |title=Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa |url=https://teol.ku.dk/cas/publications/publications/occ._papers/lemarchand1999.pdf |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=Centre of African studies, University of Copenhagen |page=15 |language=English |publication-place=Denmark}}</ref>
The Banyarwanda who settled in Lulenge from the late 1950s to the 1980s, alongside earlier migrants to the eastern [[Congo Free State]] in the nineteenth century, collectively known as "''[[Banyamulenge]]''," aspired to establish their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were required to meet criteria set by the Belgian colonial authorities and later upheld by the Congolese state post-independence to be recognized as a distinct ethnic group. These criteria included possessing a native language, a chieftainship to represent the tribe, and a [[List of territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|well-defined territory]] acknowledged by neighboring tribes. Despite their mother tongue being Kinyarwanda, the Banyarwanda lacked both a chieftainship and a defined territory, which disqualified them from being recognized as a Congolese tribe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heyse |first=T. |date=January 1938 |title=Concentration et Déconcentration au Congo Belge |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002085233801100401 |journal=Progress in Public Administration |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–624 |doi=10.1177/002085233801100401 |issn=0552-3060 |s2cid=189496214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Laddersous |first=Alfred Moeller |title=De certaines formes de participation des indigènes à l'administration de notre colonie |year=1927 |pages=262–266 |language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gana |first=Aaron Tsado |title=Federalism in Africa, Volume 2 |publisher=Africa World Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781592210800 |location=Trenton, New Jersey |pages=18–19 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngbanda |first=Honoré |date=August 23, 2019 |title=The truth about the war in Minembwe |url=https://www.info-apareco.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/MEMORANDUM-APARECO_-THE-TRUTH-ABOUT-THE-WAR-IN-MINEMBWE-.pdf |access-date=June 15, 2024 |website=APARECO |pages=6–9 |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, "''Banyamulenge''" were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda," denoting their status as migrant with Rwanda origins. It wasn't until the early 1970s that the categorization of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased during the [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] administration.<ref name="BBC News Afrique"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lemarchand |first=René |date=May 1999 |title=Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa |url=https://teol.ku.dk/cas/publications/publications/occ._papers/lemarchand1999.pdf |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=Centre of African studies, University of Copenhagen |page=15 |language=English |publication-place=Denmark}}</ref>


=== 1972 Ordinance, land acquisitions and identity crisis ===
=== 1972 Ordinance, land acquisitions and identity crisis ===

Revision as of 14:21, 15 June 2024

Minembwe
Aerial view of Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe
Aerial view of Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe
Country DR Congo
ProvinceSouth Kivu
TerritoryFizi
SectorLulenge
GroupingBasimukuma Sud
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)

Minembwe is a cluster of several villages located in the highlands of the Lulenge, within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated at an altitude of about 2,500 meters above sea level, in a hilly and mountainous region covered with forests, which provides fertile land for agriculture. It lies approximately 150 kilometers southward of Bukavu. The region is interspersed with myriad streams and rivers that flow towards Lake Tanganyika, the second-deepest lake in the world.[1]

Historically, Minembwe was predominantly settled by the Bembe and Buyu peoples;[2] however, the region is renowned for its profound ethnocultural diversity, serving as a nexus for myriad ethnicities such as the Bafuliiru, Banyindu, Bamushi, Baholoholo, Babwari, Bavira, Balega, Bahunde, Banyanga, Bashu, Baamba, Baswaga, and Banyamulenge. Kibembe prevails as the lingua franca, with Swahili and Kinyarwanda also in widespread use, though numerous minority groups continue to converse in their indigenous languages.[3][4][5]

History

Early history and ethnic tensions

The area was conventionally inhabited by the Babembe people. It served as a center for trade, commerce, and cultural exchange, with people from various ethnic groups converging in the region.[2][5][6][7] Under Belgian colonial administration, the Bembe and Buyu communities were amalgamated into the Fizi Territory, which was subsequentially segmented into five divisions: Itombwe, Lulenge, Mutambala, Ngandja, and Tangani'a. However, post-decolonization, the Itombwe sector was realigned closer to the Mwenga Territory to facilitate more immediate administrative oversight for the indigenous populace.[8][9]

During the 1920s, swathes of the South and North Kivu's territories were adjudged sparsely populated, prompting the Belgian colonial administrators to enlist labor from extraneous locales to foster regional development. This incitement culminated in the relocation of Banyarwanda to the Kivu highlands from the late 1930s through the 1950s.[10][7][11][12][13] This demographic shift engendered profound sociocultural ramifications within the region, particularly in Minembwe. Nevertheless, the assimilation process was fraught with discord. Ethnic antagonisms erupted between the Banyarwanda and other indigenous ethnic communities, notably the Babembe, exacerbated by land disputes, resource competition, and politico-strategic rivalries.[14] In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by political instability in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas.[15][16] Parenthetically, during the Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of Lemera, Mulenge, and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the South and North Kivu regions.[17]

Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical abacost in 1983

The Banyarwanda who settled in Lulenge from the late 1950s to the 1980s, alongside earlier migrants to the eastern Congo Free State in the nineteenth century, collectively known as "Banyamulenge," aspired to establish their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were required to meet criteria set by the Belgian colonial authorities and later upheld by the Congolese state post-independence to be recognized as a distinct ethnic group. These criteria included possessing a native language, a chieftainship to represent the tribe, and a well-defined territory acknowledged by neighboring tribes. Despite their mother tongue being Kinyarwanda, the Banyarwanda lacked both a chieftainship and a defined territory, which disqualified them from being recognized as a Congolese tribe.[18][19][20][21] The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, "Banyamulenge" were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda," denoting their status as migrant with Rwanda origins. It wasn't until the early 1970s that the categorization of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased during the Mobutu Sese Seko administration.[1][22]

1972 Ordinance, land acquisitions and identity crisis

In 1972, Barthélémy Bisengimana Rwema, a Tutsi cabinet director of Mobutu during his second republic, initiated a presidential "Ordinance № 69-096." This ordinance collectively granted Zairian (Congolese) nationality to all Banyarwanda.[23] However, the law placed both the Banyarwanda populations who had long settled in the eastern region of Zaire, hence entitled to Congolese citizenship by virtue, and those coming from more recent migratory flows in the same predicament, generating bewilderment among the affected communities. The widespread acquisition of Congolese nationality, coupled with the perverse ramifications of the land legislation enacted under the framework of "Zairianisation," prompted businessmen, politicians, and influential Tutsi individuals to seize opportunities and acquire land, particularly former colonial plantations that had been redistributed by the state. These land acquisitions effectively legalized the land settlements of the Tutsi peasantry in the Kivu region, endowing them with a recognized status.[23] The impossibility of applying the "1972 Ordinance", not respecting the basic criteria, aggravated the tension and engendered conflicts in the region due to resistance from other Congolese tribes who considered themselves expropriated for the second time (the first time by the Belgian colonists) from part of their territory by Tutsis who remained from elsewhere in the collective unconscious.[23][24] These ethnic tensions threatened the national integrity and led the Congolese political authorities to repeal and annul the "1972 Ordinance" by passing Law no. 81/002 of June 29, 1981, and, thus, to correct the mistake that was made to the law regarding the recognition of ethnic communities.[23] In the same year, Banyarwanda changed their eponym from "Banyarwanda" to "Banyamulenge" to be distinguished from those coming directly from Rwanda.[25] However, the identity crisis between Banyamulenge and other Congolese tribes was conspicuous at the time as civil status offices continued to be torched to destroy the administrative documents necessary for any granting of nationality or land for Banyamulenge.

Tensions resurface (1991-1999)

Between 1991 and 1993, ethnic tensions resurfaced violently, during the representation of Kivu at the National Sovereign Conference (Conférence Nationale Souveraine) organized in Kinshasa to establish a democratic regime in Zaire. This resulted in the formation of youth militias initiating attacks and murders in Kivu,[26] but were subsequently halted following the intervention of the Special Presidential Division (Division Présidentielle Spéciale) to restore some semblance of order.[27]

At the onset of the Second Congo War, the Banyamulenge united with Rwandan Tutsi refugees, scattered throughout the vast expanse of the Kivu region[28] to fight against discriminatory nationality and land laws. The Banyamulenge fighters aligned themselves with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), and later forged alliances with the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) and the Rally for Congolese Democracy (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie).[29][30][28] Following Mobutu's ousting from power, the Rally for Congolese Democracy, a rebel faction backed by the Rwandan government and led by Azarias Ruberwa at the time, established Minembwe as an independent region in 1999 alongside Bunyakiri in Kalehe Territory.[31][30][32]

Ongoing ethnic tensions (2006–present)

The recognition of these two territorial entities became a source of ethnic tension between the various components of the Transitional Government at the beginning of 2006.[33][34] The Banyamulenge, having supported the AFDL and RCD forces during the Second Congo War, were accused of launching attacks on refugee camps and densely populated villages, perpetrating civilian executions, and carrying out acts of terrorism against Zairian civilians in different regions of South and North Kivu, including Bwegera, Luberizi, Luvungi, Katala, Rubenga, Lubarika, Kakumbukumbu, Mutarule, Kagunga, Kiliba, Ndunda, Biriba, Sange, Rwenena, Kahororo, Kamanyola, Lemera, Kidote, Makobola, Kasika, Kilungutwe, Kilungutwe River and Katogota. Consequently, many Congolese perceived the Banyamulenge as invaders encroaching upon their habitats.[35][36][30] Conversely, those on the Banyamulenge side argue that they were not given adequate space within the Fizi Territory and are therefore fighting for self-defense. This conflict has led to a displacement of approximately 140,000 individuals who were forced to leave their homes due to fighting between armed groups in Minembwe in May 2019, according to humanitarian organizations.[37][38]

Declaration of Minembwe as a commune

MONUSCO's helicopter transporting rations for the 12th brigade's troops based in Minembwe, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo

In September 2020, Minembwe was declared a rural commune in the Lulenge sector in the Fizi Territory, despite objections from other ethnic groups in the region who claimed that the proper legal and administrative procedures had not been followed. The installation of Minembwe as a rural commune, and the appointment of Gad Mukiza, a Tutsi, as its mayor on September 28, 2020, has generated a great deal of controversy and opposition from other Congolese tribes who assert their ownership of the land.[39][40][41][42] The controversy surrounding Minembwe has been fueled by the history of conflict between Banyamulenge and other ethnic groups in the region. Many Congolese see the declaration of Minembwe as a rural commune as a way for Banyamulenge to gain greater control over the region and consolidate their power. Some critics argue that the move was made in response to pressure from neighboring countries, particularly Rwanda, which has long been accused of supporting the Banyamulenge.[1]

On October 8, 2020, the process of creating Minembwe as a rural commune was canceled following a declaration by the President of the Republic, Félix Tshisekedi. His decision came after widespread protests and violence erupted in the region due to the declaration. The decision was made to ease tensions in the area and prevent further violence. However, Tshisekedi's government cited irregularities in how the declaration was made and concerns over the legality of the move. There were also allegations that the declaration was made to benefit a particular ethnic group, the Banyamulenge, who are seen as outsiders by other ethnic groups in the area. Nevertheless, the cancelation was welcomed by many groups, including opposition parties and civil society organizations.[43][44][1]

Félix Tshisekedi stated:

"For me, the salvation of the people is the supreme law. I cannot leave my people in danger. I have decided to cancel what has been done so far for Minembwe".[45]

The cancellation of the commune was met with mixed reactions from the Banyamulenge community, who saw it as a violation of their rights and a reversal of the gains they had made in their struggle for recognition and self-determination. Some Banyamulenge leaders and activists accused the government of caving in to pressure from other ethnic groups and abandoning its promises to protect their interests and promote their development.[46][39]

The situation in Minembwe has remained tense, with reports of violence and displacement continuing to emerge. In October 2020, the United Nations reported that at least 15 people had been killed and dozens more injured in clashes between Banyamulenge and other groups in the area. The UN also estimated that over 50,000 people had been displaced by the violence. The situation in Minembwe remains a contentious issue in the DRC.[47][48]

Overview

On July 20, 2021, Twiganeho militiamen and its allies attacked the Musika village, located in the southern Basimunyaka groupement, Lulenge sector.[49] According to several testimonies, fifteen homes of civilians were scorched, forcing civilian members of the local community to move to Runundu and Ilundu villages. Other members of the local communities were also affected and moved toward the villages of Lumanya and Kwamulima.[49] Two elderly men were burned in the house, the children were separated from their parents and a hundred cows were abducted, according to witnesses in the area.  

In May 2022, clashes between Ngumino and Mai-Mai Biloze Bishambuke and their allies killed nearly five people in Irumba and Ngandura, villages situated 15 kilometers from Minembwe.[50]

In July 2022, 4 civilians were killed in Minembwe by Twiganeho, an insurgent group led by an army deserter Colonel Michel Rukunda, after refusing to join the forced recruitment.[51]

In August 2022, dozens of civilians and police officers were taken hostage by Twiganeho in the highlands of Minembwe, South Kivu.[51]

On January 4, 2023, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) in charge of operations, General-Major Chico Tshitambwe, called on the population of Minembwe to dissociate themselves from armed groups.[52] Chico Tshitambwe also invited the militias to lay down their arms and join the PDDRC-S program.

Development opportunities

Being an area built on hills and without subsurface wealth, Minembwe does not present strong development possibilities except for its location as a riparian region which gives it agriculture and fishing development.[53][54] Lake Tanganyika, situated in the eastern part of the region, offers tremendous fishing potential for Minembwe. Despite strong agricultural and fisheries development, Minembwe has suffered from a lack of improvements in health, access to clean water, lack of roads, and basic civic services.[55]

References

  1. ^ a b c d "Pourquoi Minembwe est symbolique pour certains Congolais". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  2. ^ a b Muchukiwa, Bosco (2004). Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'UVIRA au Sud Kivu de 1961 à 2004 (in French). Institut de Politique et de Gestion du Développent, Anvers. pp. 19–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ "Fizi Itombwe – Fizi ou territoire de babembe". Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  4. ^ Martin, Guy (2009). "The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. René LemarchandAfrica's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Gerard Prunier". Africa Today. 56 (2): 92–97. doi:10.2979/aft.2009.56.2.92. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 10.2979/aft.2009.56.2.92.
  5. ^ a b Jean-Luc Vellut, Wilungula B. Cosma (1997). "Fizi 1967 - 1986: Le Maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  6. ^ Jean-Luc Vellut, Wilungula B. Cosma (1997). "Fizi 1967-1986: le maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  7. ^ a b Moeller, Alfred (1936). "Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo belge" [The main lines of the migrations of the Bantu from the eastern province of the Belgian Congo] (PDF) (in French). Retrieved March 11, 2023.
  8. ^ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2004). Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'UVIRA au Sud Kivu de 1961 à 2004 (in French). Institut de Politique et de Gestion du Développent, Anvers. pp. 19–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  25. ^ Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen. p. 16. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
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  31. ^ "Pourquoi Minembwe est symbolique pour certains Congolais". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
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  33. ^ Tshiambi, Albert (20 February 2006). "L'érection de Minembwe en "territoire" suscite des mécontentements" (in French). Le Potentiel. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
  34. ^ The UN and Kabila Illegally endorse Minembwe Archived 2008-10-10 at the Wayback Machine, La Conscience
  35. ^ "Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003" (PDF). August 2010. pp. 91–95. Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  36. ^ afrikarabia (7 October 2020). "RDC : Minembwe, la commune de la discorde". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  37. ^ afrikarabia (20 October 2020). "Minembwe : les clés pour comprendre la controverse". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-04-06.
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  40. ^ jojo, joram (2020-10-17). "THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MINEMBWE AS A COMMUNE IN SOUTH KIVU". Joram Jojo Multimedia. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
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  42. ^ Mulongo, Freddy (4 October 2020). "De l'occupation à la balkanisation: Minembwe est vendu aux occupants par Tshilombo!". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
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3°56′3.91″S 28°43′48.22″E / 3.9344194°S 28.7300611°E / -3.9344194; 28.7300611

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