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Indigenous response to colonialism

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Indigenous responses to colonization vary widely depending on the specific group of people, the historical period, the territory, and the colonial state(s) they interact with. Indigenous peoples have had agency and some degree of choice in the course of the colonial history. Some employed armed resistance, while others used diplomatic means to negotiate positive outcomes, some used the legal system, and some fled to remote inhospitable or remote territories to try to avoid conflict. Nevertheless, some Indigenous peoples were forced to move to reservations or reductions, others were massacred, others were forced to work in mines, plantations, construction, and domestic work, to name a few. Finally, others were manipulated to detribalize and culturally assimilate into Western-dominated societies. Indigenous peoples have formed alliances with one or more Indigenous or non-Indigenous nations. Overall, the responses of Indigenous peoples to colonialism during this period have been diverse and varied in their effectiveness.[1][2][3] Indigenous resistance has a history that is long, complex, and still under development and being written.[4]

Background

Geronimo, Apache leader

Before the age of colonialism, there were hundreds of millions peoples throughout the territories that would be colonized, with hundreds of languages, religions and cultures. The peoples that would become to known as Indigenous had large cities, city-states, chiefdoms, states, kingdoms, republics, confederacies, and empires. These societies had varying degrees of knowledge of arts, agriculture, engineering, architecture, mathematics, astronomy, writing, physics, medicine, irrigation, geology, mining, weather forecasting, navigation and metallurgy.[5] Their population would experience a significant collapse due to the effects of colonization. Most Indigenous groups in the world today have been displaced from some or all of their ancestral lands.[6][7][8] Indigenous peoples have existed in a context of colonialism, as they are not "Indigenous" without experiencing the practice of colonialism, that is, when their sovereignty and self-determination is not realized.[9]

In recent decades, non-Indigenous historiography has paid more attention to Indigenous agency. Before, Indigenous peoples were studied as passive objects of colonial policy and administration, but now the growing areas of borderland studies and Indigenous agency have emerged.[10][11][12]

As European colonialism spread throughout the world, settlers became dominant through conquest, occupation, or invasion. In this process, there has been and continues to be conflict between settlers and Indigenous peoples. For hundreds of years of recent history, Indigenous groups have been a target of a number of atrocity crimes including multiple genocides which have destroyed entire nations. In spite of this, Indigenous peoples survive and some are thriving. They account for a population of 476 million residing in 90 countries in the world, speaking over 5000 languages, even though many languages have been lost. Some examples of important Indigenous languages include the ones spoken by Aymaras, Guaranis and Quechuas in South America, Lakotas and Navajo in North America, Mayas and Nahuas in Central America, Inuit of the circumpolar region, Sámi of northwest Eurasia, Torres Strait Islanders and Māori of Oceania.[13][14][15] For comparison, at the time of contact in year 1492, there were 40 to 70 language spoken in Europe, mostly from the Indo-European language family.[16]

Indigenous peoples continue to struggle as they suffer discrimination in most countries where they co-exist with non-Indigenous peoples. The majority of the world’s Indigenous peoples are almost always among the poorest groups within the states where they live, and they amount to 19% of the world's poor.[17][2][18]

Aztec warriors led by an eagle knight, each holding a macuahuitl club. Florentine Codex, book IX, F, 5v. Manuscript written by Bernardino de Sahagún.

Contact and conquest

Before Europeans set out to discover what had been populated by others in their Age of Discovery, and before the European colonization, Indigenous peoples resided in a large proportion of the world's territory. For example, in the Americas, there are estimates of population of up to 100 million people.[19][20] The Indigenous response to colonization has been varied, and also changed over time, as each group chose to flee, fight, submit, support or seek diplomatic solutions. One example of an Indigenous group that fled is the Beothuk in Newfoundland which is now practically extinct. The Charrúa were massacred in what is now Uruguay and were completely destroyed. In contrast, the Nenets have accommodated the Russian state.[17]

Malinche translating for Hernán Cortés

For a long time, scholars have explained that the large fatality rates of Indigenous peoples upon contact with settlers has been caused by new infectious diseases brought to Indigenous territories from overseas. Recent scholarship has shifted to explore the nature of difficult conditions of life imposed on Indigenous peoples due to colonization itself that made Indigenous peoples more vulnerable to any disease, including new diseases. In other words, the vectors of death such as forced labor combined with hunger that converged during the colonization process made Indigenous peoples weaker and less resistant to disease.[21][22][23][24] For example, scholars maintain that smallpox probably killed a third of the population in colonial Mexico but admit that there is no evidence to quantify the impact with certainty.[25]

Cuitláhuac, Aztec Tlatoani who led to victory in battle

During the colonization of New Spain from the 16th to the 18th century, the focus of the colonizers has been to practice agriculture, farming, mining, and infrastructure construction while exploiting Indigenous labor.[26] Slavery was of one of the main factors that decimated the Indigenous population of North America. Indigenous slavery predated and outlasted the African slave trade until the 20th century. The Spanish crown allowed slavery of Indigenous peoples captured in "just wars" which meant in practice Indigenous resistance to colonialism. Indigenous forced labor took place in repartimientos, encomiendas, Spanish missions and haciendas. Indigenous women and children were forced to do domestic and sometimes were abused. Even after slavery was outlawed by the Spanish Empire, and then independent colonies such as the Mexican and United States governments, those that benefitted from slavery used legal frameworks to avoid enforcement such as vagrancy laws, convict leasing, and debt peonage.[27]

Francisco Tenamaztle, indigenous leader in the Mixtón War, statue on the main square of Nochistlán de Mejía, Zacatecas

Indigenous nations sought diplomacy or military alliances to survive, seeking allies in other nations, including other Indigenous nations and other colonizing powers, as in the French and Indian War and the War of 1812. Thus, they have sought alliances if the alliance has been estimated to bring improve their chances of survival or work in their advantage. Some Indigenous nations attempted to show their allegiance to the colonizing power by becoming a military ally in the attacks of other Indigenous nations, as in the case of the Tlaxcalans in the central valley in Mexico.[28] Other times, they would ally themselves with escaped African slaves as with the case of the Seminoles.

On rare occasions, Indigenous peoples would be successful in battle against European armies. Examples include the Battle of Curalaba, La Noche Triste, Chichimeca War and the Battle of Big Horn. The Mapuche in Chile,[29] the Māori in New Zealand, the Yaquis in Mexico, and the Seminoles in Florida resisted for decades or even centuries.[30] However, in many parts of the world Indigenous peoples moved away from fertile resource-rich territories to inaccessible and inhospitable territories. They were displaced from fertile places in Argentina, Brazil, Philippines and temperate Africa. Some examples include small Indigenous groups moving to parts of the Amazon basin, Australia, Central America, the Arctic and Siberia. Others came in conflict with other Indigenous groups as they were forcefully displaced and occupied territory that was inhabited by other Indigenous groups.[17]

On occasions, the reaction of Indigenous peoples to attacks resulted in their transformation into warrior horse cultures that used European fire guns to resist further invasion of their territories. Even today, the stereotypical Native American depicted in Indian Wars is riding on a horse. The Apaches and Araucanos adopted the horse into their culture. Indigenous peoples also adopted newly introduced domestic animals in their diet as Europeans introduced chicken, cattle, pigs, goats, sheep in the Columbian exchange. Indigenous peoples has hunted their territory for centuries or millennia, and many times killed the animals belonging to settlers, and this has been the cause of much conflict between settlers and Indigenous peoples.[31][32]

Colonization

Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala

Modern colonialism that started in the 15th century, along with European transatlantic navigation, resulted in the expansion of European empires and the associated settler colonialism that occurred in the American Continent, Oceania, South Africa and beyond.

According to historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, the fact that Indigenous peoples survive today against genocidal attacks is a proof of resistance:[33]

Native nations and communities, while struggling to maintain fundamental values and collectivity, have from the beginning resisted modern colonialism using both defensive and offensive techniques, including the mod­ern forms of armed resistance of national liberation movements and what now is called terrorism. In every instance they have fought for survival as peoples.

Charrua and soldier.

Dunbar-Ortiz sets examples of resistance in North America in the cases of Pueblo Revolt, Pequot War, King Philip's War, and the Seminole Wars.[24] Notable Indigenous leadership throughout the world includes Caupolican, Dundalli, Geronimo, Lautaro, Mangas Coloradas, Manco Inca, Tupac Amaru II, Tecumseh, and Tenskwatawa.

At times, Indigenous peoples used violent resistance, at times successfully, and at times involving two or more Indigenous allies. Examples include Mixton rebellion, Zapatista uprising, Caste War of Yucatan, Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712, Pontiac's War and North-West Rebellion.[1][34]

Academic Benjamin Madley said that throughout the world, groups targeted for annihilation resist, often violently. He details the case of the Modoc War comparing the casualties of the conflict. Furthermore, he says that "The Modoc genocide is hardly the only genocide against indigenous people that has been sanitized as war.”[35]

1622 Jamestown massacre. The image is largely considered conjecture.

In North America, where the British made treaties with Indigenous peoples, they learned that these treaties could be broken and would not protect their territory or themselves from attack.[17][36] Faced with the risk that their people would be destroyed, leaders of Indian resistance agreed to treaties requiring land cessions, and redefinition of borders in the hope that the settlers would not encroach further on Indigenous territory.[4] One of such examples is the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians, a federally recognized Indian Nation, who was led by Potawatomi leader Leopold Pokagon. Other times, treaties were signed under coercion or right after Indigenous groups suffered massacres, such as in the case of the Treaty of Hartford of 1638.[37] Colonial powers also sought control of new territories by appropriating the Indigenous elite through bribery or assimilation.[38]

The Cherokee nation is one of the federally recognized tribes within the United States. It is now located in Oklahoma, after being forcefully removed in the Trail of Tears along with other Indigenous groups. Indigenous groups in North America were assigned to small reservations, typically on remote and economically marginal territories, that were would not support crops, fishing or hunting. Some of the reservations were then dismantled by an allotment process, but some Indigenous peoples refused to sign.[17]

According to Ken Coates, sexual relations between Indigenous women and non-Indigenous men took place in to some extent in New Zealand, New Spain, the Metis in Canada, whereas it generally did not took place in other places such as Australia and British North America. Peoples of mixed settler-Indigenous ancestry have been discriminated. The mixing blurred the lines between Indigenous and newcomer populations, and most learned the language of the colonizers, which often has been a European language.[17][39]

In North America, the United States and Canada established residential schools, removing Indigenous children from their family for years while prohibiting the use of their mother language and cultural practices. Australia focused on children with mixed ethnicity, and removed children to be placed in residential schools or to be adopted by non-Indigenous families.[17] Canada and the United States have assimilated Indigenous peoples via Indian termination policies in which incentives are offered for Indigenous peoples to renounce Indigenous rights, in exchange for benefits such as citizenship rights. Furthermore, Canada removed Indigenous rights if an Indigenous woman married a non-Indigenous person, or an Indigenous person graduated from university or join the military.[40]

According to sociologist Anibal Quijano, Bolivia and Mexico have undergone limited decolonialization through a revolutionary process.[41] In Mexico, the case of Ejercito Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) denotes resistance in many areas including education, territorial, epistemological, political and economic terms. EZLN is viewed as a continuation of the struggle against more than 500 years of oppression against Indigenous peoples.[42]

Present strategies

Indigenous strategies continue to pursue Indigenous rights and freedom, and seek to rebuild their nations and cultures to maintain national groups with distinct valuable identities. Most Indigenous nations continue to pursue the program of self-determination and sovereignty.[43][44] Elaine Coburn and historian Lorenzo Veracini say that colonialism is present in contemporary settler colonial states including Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the United States.[45][46]

Contemporary Indigenous strategies have included negotiations, mediation, arbitration, political statements, blockades, legal challenges, activism, political demonstrations and civil disobedience. A few have worked on the removal from public spaces of symbols of Indigenous oppression such as monuments to Christopher Columbus, John A. Macdonald, and Junipero Serra. Much resistance has been also used to bring Indigenous issues to public attention.[47][48][49][50] According to Ken Coates, liberal democracies do not like being called up on internal human rights abuses "when these same governments are often prominent in criticizing other nations for abuses of human and civil rights". Furthermore, post independence countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia and Mexico have ignored Indigenous rights as much as colonial empires while they practice internal colonialism.[17][51][52]

Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz who is part Indigenous has said that when Howard Zinn wrote his award winning history book, he did not include the history of the Indigenous peoples, so he said that she could write what would become such book: An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States.[53][54] Rigoberta Menchu published an autobiography centered around the Guatemalan genocide and went on to win a Nobel Peace Prize.[7]

There are Truth Commissions that have investigated and reported on Indigenous atrocities. Some of them include the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, and Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Norway. [55][56][57][58]

In the world there is a number of museums whose central theme is that of Indigenous topics. Notable examples are that of the National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico City), Museo Nacional de Antropología (Madrid), Museu do Índio (Rio de Janeiro, Brasil), American Indian Genocide Museum (Houston, USA), George Gustav Heye Center (New York City, USA), and National Museum of the American Indian (Washington, D.C., USA). It is notable that in some countries such as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, New Zealand and Australia, there is a relative shortage of important Indigenous-centered museums.

There is a number of Indigenous broadcasting organizations from countries serving Indigenous populations including APTN, First Nations Experience, NITV, NRK Sami and Whakaata Māori.[59]

Indigenous peoples commemorate historical events and processes on an annual or periodical basis. Examples include Unthanksgiving Day and Indigenous Peoples Day.[60][61][62][63] They have also protested what they consider to be controversial colonial holidays such as Columbus Day and its quincentenary.[64][65]

Indigenous groups have publicly requested apologies from a number of states and Christian churches for their historical or contemporary role in atrocities committed against Indigenous peoples.[66][67][68][69]

Some movements such as the Hawaiian sovereignty movement have sought to promote the use of Indigenous language in educational programs.[70] In recent years, there has been a revival in the use of Māori language in New Zealand where it is an official language and taught in 350 schools.[71][7] New technologies are making access to educational language programs accessible to the general public.[72] Furthermore, there are examples of Indigenous schools that move away from Eurocentric curriculums while considering the graduates' future prospects within a non-indigenous majority state.[73] In Paraguay, Guarani is the official language and is spoken by 6.5 million people in the region. Quechua and Aymara are official languages in Peru and Bolivia and are spoken by 8 and 2.5 million people respectively.[74] Nationalism has promoted the use of local languages in most of Eurasia, but in the rest of the world, European languages remain dominant in mass media, education and the internet.[75]

Today, Indigenous peoples can react to cultural processes in various ways including acculturation, transculturation, assimilation, and cultural loss, while some remain separated from the dominant culture or marginalized from any group including their own. In Hispanic America, Indigenous peoples have adopted Spanish religion, institutions, language, literature, as well as Eurasian domestic animals and crops.[76][77]

Indigenous nations and peoples have managed to survive despite long-term sustained threats to their survival as Indigenous nations, cultures or as members of an Indigenous group.[78]

See also

References

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Map

Further reading

  • Coates, Kenneth. 2004. A Global History of Indigenous Peoples: Struggle and Survival. Houndmills Basingstoke Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (January 2014). From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas. American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29.
  • Gustafson, Bret (2009). Manipulating Cartographies: Plurinationalism, Autonomy, and Indigenous Resurgence in Bolivia. Anthropological Quarterly, 82(4), 985–1016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20638677
  • Hall, T.D., & Fenelon, J.V. (2009). Indigenous Peoples and Globalization: Resistance and Revitalization (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315633961
  • Hill, G. (2021). The 500 years of Indigenous resistance comic book (Revised and expanded.). Arsenal Pulp Press.
  • Menchaca Martha. 2021. Recovering History Constructing Race: The Indian Black and White Roots of Mexican Americans. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Rausch, Jane M., A Tropical Plains Frontier: The Llanos of Colombia, 1531–1831 (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1984).
  • Sengar, Bina; Adjoumani, A. Mia Elise, eds. (2023). Indigenous Societies in the Post-colonial World, Responses and Resilience Through Global Perspectives. SpringerLink. ISBN: 978-981-19-8721-2. doi:10.1007/978-981-19-8722-9
  • Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008).
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