(Translated by https://www.hiragana.jp/)
Toledo War - Wikipedia Jump to content

Toledo War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Jtmichcock (talk | contribs) at 01:03, 31 May 2006 (→‎External links: copyedit). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Toledo War

Map of the "Toledo Strip", the disputed region.
Date1835-1836
Location
Along the border between Michigan Territory and Ohio
Result The "Frostbitten Convention" (1836)
Territorial
changes		 Michigan relinquishes claim to "Toledo Strip", gains western Upper Peninsula, admitted to the Union in 1837
Belligerents
Michigan Territory militia and citizens Ohio militia and citizens
Casualties and losses
1 wounded none

The Toledo War (1835-1836; also known as the Ohio-Michigan War) was the largely bloodless culmination of a nearly thirty-year boundary dispute between the U.S. state of Ohio and adjoining territory of Michigan. The "war" arose over jurisdiction of a 468 square mile (1,210 sq km) piece of land (the Toledo Strip) now containing the city of Toledo, Ohio. The dispute originated from conflicting state and federal legislation passed between 1787 and 1805 that left the exact location of Ohio's northern boundary uncertain. The matter went unresolved until Michigan began to press for statehood in the early 1830s. In 1835, after a number of legislative steps were taken by both jurisdictions, tensions escalated. Ohio's governor Robert Lucas and Michigan's then 24-year-old "boy Governor" Stevens T. Mason were both unwilling to cede jurisdiction and mobilized their respective militias for armed conflict near Toledo.

A series of threats and harassments ensued that summer, but with little interaction between the forces. The single military confrontation ended with no casualties and only a report of shots being fired into the air. Overall, there was only one serious injury: the stabbing of a Michigan deputy sheriff involved in the arrest of an Ohio family. The situation on the ground remained a standoff for over a year. Peace terms would eventually be dictated by the U.S. Congress, with President Andrew Jackson siding with Ohio. The Michigan territorial government, facing extreme financial pressure, finally relented. In December, 1836, the territory surrendered the strip in exchange for a statehood and approximately two-thirds of the Upper Peninsula. Considered a poor outcome for Michigan at the time, the later discovery of copper and the plentiful timber more than compensated for the loss of the strip.

Origins

Further information: Timeline of the Toledo Strip/War
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The legal basis for the war originated with the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory in what is now the upper Midwestern United States. The Ordinance specified that the territory would form "not less than three nor more than five" future states. The north-south boundaries for the three such states was to have as the dividing line "an east and west line drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan." [1] The exact location of this line became the focal point of the extended dispute between Ohio and the Michigan Territory.

"Mitchell Map" of the region, from the late 1700s, used to create the Ordinance Line of 1787. Note that the southern tip of Lake Michigan is nearly due west of present day Detroit.

At the time of the Ordinance, the correct location of the southern extreme of Lake Michigan was unknown. The most highly regarded map of the time, the "Mitchell Map,"[2] placed it at a latitude just south of present-day Detroit, Michigan. This would place in Ohio the entire Lake Erie shoreline west of the Pennsylvania border. [3] However, the Enabling Act of 1802, passed by the U.S. Congress, defined Ohio's northern boundary slightly differently: "an east and west line drawn through the southern extreme of Lake Michigan, running east...until it shall intersect Lake Erie or the [Northwest] territorial line; thence with the same, through Lake Erie to the Pennsylvania line aforesaid." Given that the Northwest Territory line ran through the middle of Lake Erie and then up the Detroit River, combined with the prevailing belief regarding the location of the southern tip of Lake Michigan, the framers of the Ohio Constitution in 1802 believed it was Congress' intent that Ohio's northern boundary should be well north of the 1787 Ordinance line near what is now Detroit. Ohio would thus be granted access to the entire western Lake Erie shoreline, while the other new states would have access to the Great Lakes via Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior.[4]

During the Ohio Constitutional Convention in 1802, delegates received word from trappers who reported that Lake Michigan actually extended significantly further south than previously believed. It was thus possible that a parallel of latitude extending east from Lake Michigan's southern tip may have intersected Lake Erie somewhere east of Maumee Bay, or worse, may not have intersected the lake at all; the farther south Lake Michigan actually extended, the more land Ohio would lose to Michigan, perhaps even the entire western shoreline.[5]

Responding to this contingency, the Ohio delegates included a provision in the draft constitution that if these reports about the actual location of the southern terminus of Lake Michigan were in fact correct, the state boundary line would be angled slightly northeast so as to intersect Lake Erie at the "most northerly cape of the Miami [Maumee] Bay." This placed much of the Maumee River watershed, and all of the southern shore of Lake Erie west of Pennsylvania, in the state of Ohio. The draft constitution with this proviso was then accepted by the United States Congress.[6] Before Ohio's admission to the Union in February 1803, however, the proposed constitution had been referred to a Congressional committee. The committee's report stated that the clause defining the northern boundary depended on "a fact not yet ascertained" and the members "thought it unnecessary to take it, at this time, into consideration."[7]

However, when it carved out the Michigan Territory in 1805, Congress used the exact language of the 1787 Ordinance to define the southern boundary of the territory, so that the southern border of Michigan Territory and the northern border of Ohio were potentially two different lines. While this fact went unnoticed and was likely a Congressial oversight, the legal stage was set for the "war" that would follow 30 years later.[8]

Creation of the "Toledo Strip"

Former Ohio Governor and U.S. Surveyor General Edward Tiffin who commissioned the "Harris Line" survey.

The exact location of the border remained an issue throughout the early 1800s. Residents of the Port of Miami — which would later become Toledo — urged the Ohio government to resolve the border issue. Repeated resolutions and requests from the Ohio Legislature led Congress to approve an official survey in 1812.[9] The survey was delayed due to the War of 1812. Only after Indiana was admitted into the Union in 1816 with a northern border ten miles north of the Ordinance Line did work begin. The U.S. Surveyor General at the time, Edward Tiffin, was a former Ohio governor. He employed surveyor William Harris, not to survey the Ordinance Line, but the line as described in the Ohio Constitution of 1802. As a result, the "Harris Line" placed the mouth of the Maumee River in Ohio.[10]

Michigan Territory governor, Lewis Cass (1813-1831)

Michigan territorial governor Lewis Cass was very unhappy with the result because it was not based on the Congressionally approved Ordinance Line. In a letter to Tiffin, Cass stated that the Ohio-biased survey "is only adding strength to the strong, and making the weak still weaker."[11]

Shortly after the Harris Line was made public, Michigan commissioned a second survey that was carried out by John A. Fulton. The Fulton survey was based upon the original 1787 Ordinance Line. As expected, the survey measured the line eastward from Lake Michigan to Lake Erie and placed the Ohio boundary south of the mouth of the Maumee River.[12] The region between the Harris and Fulton survey lines formed what is now known as the "Toledo Strip." This ribbon of land between northern Ohio and southern Michigan spanned a region five to eight miles wide and both jurisdictions claimed sovereignty. While Ohio refused to cede its claim, Michigan quietly occupied it for the next several years, setting up local governments, building roads, and collecting taxes throughout the area.[13]

Economic significance

The Maumee River at Grand Rapids, Ohio.

The Toledo Strip was and still is a commercially important area. Prior to the rise of the railroad industry, rivers and canals were the major "highways of commerce" in the American Midwest.[14] A small but important part of the Strip — the area around present day Toledo and Maumee Bay — fell within the Great Black Swamp, and this area was nearly impossible to navigate by road, especially after spring and summer rainfalls.[15]

Draining into Lake Erie, the Maumee River was not necessarily well-suited for large ships, but it did provide an easy connection to Indiana's Fort Wayne.[16] At the time, there were plans to connect the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes through a series of canals. One canal system approved by the Ohio legislature in 1825 was the Miami and Erie Canal that included an outflow into Lake Erie via the Maumee River.[10] Strategically and economically, both Michigan and Ohio wanted what seemed destined to become an important port and a prosperous city.

The Strip west of the Toledo area is still dominated by agriculture today, due in large part to its well-drained, fertile loam soil. The area has for many years been characterized by high per-acre productivities of corn, soybeans, and wheat.[17]

Prelude to conflict

File:Robertlucas.gif
Ohio governor Robert Lucas (1832-1836)

After the Michigan Survey in 1815, the Michigan Territory organized townships inside the Strip under the assumption they were located inside its boundaries. By the late 1820s, Michigan had achieved the minimum population requirement of 60,000 to seek statehood. In 1833, Congress rejected Michigan's request to hold a constitutional convention due to the still disputed Toledo Strip. Even though Michigan occupied the land, the Ohio Congressional delegation was able to block Michigan from attaining statehood.[12]

It was Ohio's belief that the boundary was firmly established in its constitution and Michigan citizens were simply intruders. Consequently, Ohio's government refused to negotiate the issue with the Michigan Territory. In January 1835, frustrated by the stalemate, Michigan's acting Governor Stevens T. Mason called for a constitutional convention to be held in May of that year despite the refusal by Congress to approve an enabling act authorizing a state constitution.[18]

Michigan Territory Governor Stevens T. Mason (1832) - (1839)

In February 1835, Ohio passed legislation to set up county governments in the Strip, and moved to formally mark the Harris Line based upon the earlier survey. The state legislature named the county in which Toledo sat, Lucas County, after incumbent Governor Robert Lucas, a move that exacerbated the tensions between the the competing jurisdictions. At the same time, Ohio attempted to use its Congressional power to revive an earlier failed boundary bill which would have set the border at the Harris Line.

Michigan, led by the young and notoriously hot-headed Mason, responded with passage of the Pains and Penalties Act just six days after Ohio acted. The Michigan legislation made it a criminal offense for Ohio to carry out governmental actions in the Strip, under penalty of a fine up to $1,000 and/or up to five years imprisonment at hard labor.[19]. Acting as commander-in-chief of the territory, Mason then appointed Brigadier-General Joseph Brown of the Third U.S. Brigade to head the militia with instructions to be ready to strike against any Ohio trespassers.

In continuing a sign of escalations and impending armed conflict, Lucas obtained legislative approval for a militia and sent forces to the affected area. The Toledo War had begun.[12]

Former United States President John Quincy Adams, who at the time represented Massachusetts in Congress, backed Michigan's claim. In 1833, when Congress rejected Michigan's request for a convention, Adams summed up his opinion on the dispute: "Never in the course of my life have I known a controversy of which all the right so clearly on one side and all the power so overwhelmingly on the other."[12]

"War"

Congressman and former President John Quincy Adams supported Michigan's claim

Acting as commander-in-chief of Ohio's militia, Governor Lucas, together with General John Bell and about 600 other fully armed militiamen, arrived in Perrysburg, Ohio, ten miles southwest of Toledo, on March 31, 1835.[20] Shortly thereafter, Governor Mason and General Brown arrived to occupy Toledo with around 1,000 armed men. Michigan intended to preventing any Ohio advances into the Toledo area as well as to stop any border marking from taking place.[21]

Presidential intervention

The next moves came from the White House. In a desperate attempt to prevent armed battle and to avert the resulting political crisis, U.S. President Andrew Jackson consulted his Attorney General Benjamin Butler for his legal opinion. At the time, Ohio was a growing political power in the Union, with nineteen U.S. Representatives and two Senators. In contrast, Michigan, being a territory, had a single non-voting delegate in the U.S. House of Representatives. Ohio was a crucial "swing state" in presidential elections, and it would have been devastating to the fledgling Democratic Party to lose the Ohio's electoral votes. Jackson calculated that his party's interest in the state was best served by keeping the Toledo Strip a part of Ohio.[22] The response Jackson received from Butler was unexpected: the Attorney-General held that until Congress dictated otherwise, the land rightfully belonged to Michigan. This presented a political dilemma for Jackson that spurred him to take action that would greatly influence the outcome of the "war".[23]

File:Andrew jackson head.gif
President Andrew Jackson sided with Ohio.

On April 3, 1835, Jackson sent two representatives from Washington D.C. to Toledo to arbitrate the conflict and present a compromise: Richard Rush of Pennsylvania and Benjamin Chew Howard of Maryland. The proposal, presented on April 7, recommended to both sides that there be a re-survey to mark the Harris Line without Michigan's interruption, and for the residents of the affected region to choose their own state or territorial governments until the Congress could settle the matter.[24]

Lucas reluctantly agreed to the proposal, and began to disband his militia, believing the debate to be settled. But Mason refused the deal and he continued to prepare for possible border conflict.[25] Local elections set under Ohio law were held three days later.[26]

During the election, Ohio officials were harassed by Michigan authorities and the area residents were threatened with arrest if they submitted to Ohio's authority.[27] On April 8, 1835, the Monroe County, Michigan sheriff arrived at the home of Major Benjamin F. Stickney, an Ohio partisan. In the first contact between Michigan partisans and the Stickney family, the sheriff arrested two Ohioans under the Pains and Penalties Act on the basis that the men had voted in the Ohio elections.[28]

Battle of Phillips Corners

Following the election, Lucas believed that the commissioners' actions had alleviated the situation and he once again sent out surveyors to mark the Harris Line. The project went without any serious incident until April 26, 1835, when the surveying group was attacked by some fifty to sixty members of General Brown's militia in what is now called the Battle of Phillips Corners.[29][30] The battle's name is sometimes used as a synonym for the entire Toledo War.

Surveyors wrote to Lucas that while observing "the blessings of the Sabbath," Michigan militia forces advised them to retreat. In the ensuing chase, "nine of our men, who did not leave the ground in time after being fired upon by the enemy, from thirty to fifty shots, were taken prisoners and carried away into [Tecumseh]." [31] While the details of the attack are disputed — Michigan claimed it fired no shots and had only discharged a few musket rounds in the air as the Ohio group retreated — the battle further infuriated both Ohioans and Michiganders and brought the contenders to the brink of all-out war.[32][33]

Bloodshed in the summer of 1835

File:Twostickney.gif
Ohioan Two Stickney, who caused the sole serious injury in the Toledo war by stabbing a Michigan sheriff's deputy.

In response to allegations that Michigan's militia fired upon Ohioans, Lucas called a special session of Ohio's Legislature on June 8, 1935 to pass several more controversial acts, including establishment of Toledo as the county seat of the eponymously named Lucas County, the establishment of a Court of Common Pleas in the city, a law to prevent the forcible abduction of Ohio citizens from the area and a budget of $300,000 to implement the legislation.[34] Michigan's territorial legislature responded with a budget appropriation of $315,000.00 to fund its militia.[12]

Michigan voters were active as well. In May and June of that year, Michigan drafted a State Constitution, with provisions for a bicameral legislature, a Supreme Court, and other facets of a functional state government.[35] However, with the "war" still unsettled, Congress was not willing to allow Michigan's entry into the Union. President Jackson vowed to reject statehood until the border issue was resolved.[36]

Lucas ordered his Adjutant-General Samuel C. Andrews to conduct a count of the militia and reported that around 10,000 volunteers that were ready to fight. The news was exaggerated as it travelled north and further infuriated Michigan partisans. The territorial press dared the Ohio "million" to enter the strip as they "welcomed them to hospitable graves."[37]

Throughout the Summer of 1835, the governments of both states continued their practice of one-upmanship, and constant skirmishes and arrests occurred. Citizens of Monroe County, Michigan joined together in a posse to make arrests in Toledo. Lawsuits were not only rampant, but they served as a basis for retaliatory lawsuits from the opposite side.[38] Partisans from Ohio angered by the harassment targeted the offenders with criminal prosecutions.[39] Both sides organized spying parties to keep track of the sheriffs of Wood County, Ohio and Monroe County, Michigan who were entrusted with border security.[40]

John S. Horner was the territorial governor for a few short weeks in the autumn of 1835

On July 15, 1835, tensions and emotions finally overflowed and blood spilled. Monroe County, Michigan Deputy Sheriff Joseph Wood went into Toledo to arrest Major Benjamin Stickney. When Stickney and his three sons resisted, the whole family was subdued and taken into custody.[41] During the scuffle, the major's son, Two Stickney stabbed Wood with a pen knife and and fled into Ohio. Wood's injuries were not life-threatening.[42] The stabbing gave pause to the contending governors. When Lucas refused to extradite Two Stickney back to Michigan for trial, Mason wrote to President Jackson for help. Looking for peace, Lucas began making his own efforts to end the conflict, again through federal intervention via Ohio's congressional delegation.[43]

In August 1835, at the strong urging of Ohio's Congressmen, President Jackson removed Mason as Michigan's Territorial Governor and appointed John S. (“Little Jack”) Horner in his stead. Before his replacement arrived, Mason directed that 1,000 Michigan militiamen enter Toledo to prevent the scheduled first session of the Ohio Court of Common Pleas. While popular with Michigan residents, the effort failed: the judges held a midnight court before retreating south of the Maumee where Ohio forces were positioned.[44]

Frostbitten Convention and the end of the Toledo War

Mason's successor Horner proved to be extremely unpopular as governor. Residents disliked him so much they burned him in effigy and pelted him with vegetables upon his entry into the territorial capital. Horner's tenure also proved to be very short. In the October 1835 elections, voters approved the draft constitution and elected the popular Mason as state governor. The same election saw Isaac E. Crary chosen as the first U.S. Representative to Congress. Due to the dispute, however, Congress refused to accept his credentials and seated him instead as a non-voting delegate. The two U.S. Senators chosen by the state legislature in November, Lucius Lyon and John Norvell, were treated with even less respect, being allowed to sit only as spectators in the Senate gallery.[12]

Journal of the 1836 Michigan Territorial Convention, often called the "Frostbitten Convention."

On June 15, 1836, Jackson had signed a bill that allowed Michigan to become a state, but only after ceding the Toledo Strip. In exchange for this concession, Michigan would be granted the western two-thirds of the Upper Peninsula in addition to the eastern one-third already promised to the Territory.[45] Partly due to pride, and partly due to the perceived worthlessness of the Upper Peninsula's remote wilderness, a September 1836 special convention in Ann Arbor, Michigan rejected the offer.[46]

File:Upper peninsula Toledo War.jpg
The Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Congress offered the region in red to the state of Michigan in exchange for the Toledo Strip, as a compromise.

As the year wore on, Michigan, in a financial crisis at the time and nearly bankrupt, was spurred to action by the realization that a $400,000 surplus in the United States Treasury was about to be distributed to the states, but not to territorial governments. Michigan would be ineligible to receive the money.[47]

The "war" unofficially ended on December 14, 1836, at a second convention in Ann Arbor. Delegates passed a resolution to accept the terms set forth by the Congress. However, the calling of the convention this was not without controversy. Since the legislature did not approve a call to convention, the meeting was technically illegal. It had only come about due to an upswelling of private summonses, petitions, and public meetings. As a consequence, the resolution was rejected and ridiculed by many Michigan residents.[48] Congress also questioned the legality of the convention before finally accepting its solution. Because of these factors, as well as a December cold spell, the event later became known as the "Frostbitten Convention."[49]

On January 26, 1837, when Michigan was finally admitted to the Union as the 26th state,[50] absent the Toldeo Strip.[51] Although Jackson was able to secure fellow Democrat Martin Van Buren's election in the 1836 presidential vote, Ohio voted Whig despite the President siding with their cause. Four years later, both Michigan and Ohio joined with a majority of the country in electing William Henry Harrison, defeating the Democratic party incumbent Van Buren.

Subsequent History

Michigan Governor Woodbridge Nathan Ferris and Ohio Governor Frank B. Willis shake on a "truce" over state line markers erected in 1915.

At the time of the Frostbitten Convention, it appeared that Ohio had won. The Upper Peninsula (U.P.) was considered a worthless wilderness by all familiar with the area.[52] The vast mineral riches of the land were unknown until the discovery of copper in the Keweenaw Peninsula and iron in the Western U.P. This led to a mining boom that lasted long into the 20th century.[53] Given the current value of the port of Toledo to Ohio, it can be reasonably suggested that both sides benefited from the conflict. The only state that definitively "lost" was not even involved: the mineral-rich land in the U.P. would have become part of Wisconsin had Michigan not lost the Toledo Strip.[28]

Differences of opinion about the exact boundary location continued until a definitive re-survey was performed in 1915. Re-survey protocol would ordinarily require the surveyors to follow the Harris line exactly. In this case however, the surveyors deviated from the line in places so that certain residents near the border would not be subject to inconvenient changes in state residence, or have land parcels spill across the border. The 1915 survey was deliniated by 71, 12 inch (30cm) wide by 18 inch (45 cm) high granite monuments. Upon completion, the two states' governors at the time, Woodbridge Nathan Ferris of Michigan and Frank B. Willis of Ohio, shook hands at the border.[10] In modern times, conflict between the states is restricted primarily to the Michigan-Ohio State rivalry in American football,[54] an annual game the U.S. Congress declared "the greatest sports rivalry in history."[55]

USGS Topographic map that shows the former Ordinance Line as "South Bdy Michigan Survey." There are several jogs in many north-south roads at this line.

Traces of the original Ordinance Line can still be seen in northwestern Ohio and northern Indiana. The northern boundary of Ottawa County, Ohio follows it, as well as many township boundaries in Ohio border counties. Many old north-south roads are offset as they cross the line, forcing traffic to jog east while on the northbound trek. The line is identified on USGS topographical maps as the South [Boundary] Michigan Survey, and on Lucas County and Fulton County, Ohio road maps as "Old State Line Road."[56]

In 1973, the two states finally obtained a hearing before the United States Supreme Court on their competing claims to Lake Erie waters. In Michigan v. Ohio, the court upheld a special master's report and ruled that the boundary between the two states in Lake Erie was angled to the northeast, as described in Ohio's state constitution, and not a straight east-west line. [57] One consequence of the court decision was that tiny Turtle Island just outside of Maumee Bay and originally treated as being wholly in Michigan, was split between the two states.[58] This decision was the last border adjustment and finally put an end to years of debate over the official boundary line.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Northwest Ordinance; July 13, 1787. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School (accessed May 12, 2006).
  2. ^ "John Mitchell's Map, An Irony of Empire",
  3. ^ Mitchell map. University of Southern Maine (accessed May 12, 2006).
  4. ^ Mendenhall, T.C. & Graham, A.A. (1895). Boundary Line Between Ohio and Indiana, and Between Ohio and Michigan. 4 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 127, 154.
  5. ^ Ibid.
  6. ^ Ibid.
  7. ^ Ibid. at 153.
  8. ^ Ibid.
  9. ^ Ibid at 206.
  10. ^ a b c Geography of Michigan and the Great Lakes Region The Toledo War. Michigan State University (accessed May 12, 2006).
  11. ^ Mendenhall & Graham, op. cit. at 162.
  12. ^ a b c d e f The Toledo War. Michigan Department of Military and Veteran Affairs (accessed May 12, 2006).
  13. ^ Mendenhall & Graham, op. cit. at 162.
  14. ^ Mendenhall & Graham, op. cit., at 154.
  15. ^ The Great Black Swamp. Historic Perrysburg (accessed May 12, 2006).
  16. ^ Mendenhall & Graham, op. cit., at 154.
  17. ^ Ibid.
  18. ^ Mendenhall & Graham, op. cit., at 167.
  19. ^ Important Dates in Michigan's Quest for Statehood. State of Michigan (accessed May 12, 2006).
  20. ^ Tod B. Galloway (1895). The Ohio-Michigan Boundary Line Dispute 4 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 213
  21. ^ Way, Willard V. (1869). Facts and Historical Events of the Toledo War of 1835. 17 (Making of America Books)
  22. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 214.
  23. ^ Ibid.
  24. ^ Way, op. cit., at 19.
  25. ^ Ibid.
  26. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 216.
  27. ^ Wittke, Carl. (1895). The Ohio-Michigan Boundary Dispute Re-examined. 45 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 299, 303
  28. ^ a b Mitchell, Gordon (July, 2004). Corner: Ohio-Michigan Boundary War. Part 2. 24 Professional Surveyor Magazine 7.
  29. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 214.
  30. ^ The Ohio Michigan Boundary War : Battle of Phillips Corners Marker #2-26. Remarkable Ohioan (accessed May 13, 2006).
  31. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 217.
  32. ^ Wittke, op. cit., at 306.
  33. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 220.
  34. ^ Ibid.
  35. ^ Ibid. See also Baker, Patricia J. Stevens Thompson Mason. State of Michigan (accessed May 13, 2006).
  36. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 227.
  37. ^ Way, op. cit. at 28.
  38. ^ Ibid. at 29.
  39. ^ Ibid.
  40. ^ Ibid.
  41. ^ Ibid.
  42. ^ Wittke, op. cit., at 306. Two Sickney's brothers, One and Three, were also active in the fight.
  43. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 221.
  44. ^ Mendenhall & Graham, op. cit., at 199.
  45. ^ Galloway, op. cit., at 228.
  46. ^ Wittke, op.cit., at 318.
  47. ^ Baker, Patricia J. Stevens Thompson Mason. State of Michigan (accessed May 13, 2006).
  48. ^ Wittke, op. cit., at 318.
  49. ^ Ibid. at 318.
  50. ^ Michigan Quarter, U.S. Mint (accessed May 13, 2006).
  51. ^ Wittke, op. cit., at 318.
  52. ^ Ibid.
  53. ^ History of the Upper Peninsula. Northern Michigan University (accessed May 13, 2006).
  54. ^ Emmanuel, Greg (1960). The 100-Yard War : Inside the 100-Year-Old Michigan-Ohio State Football Rivalry at 8-9. Emmanuel's first chapter, "Hate: The Early Years," cites the origins of the 100-year competition between the two football teams as being borne out of the unfullfilled bloodlust of the militia troops.
  55. ^ U.S. House Resolution 460. 108th Congress, 1st Session, thomas.gov.
  56. ^ Terra Server USA. Microsoft (accessed May 13, 2006).
  57. ^ Michigan v. Ohio, 410 U.S. 420 (1973). Findlaw (accessed May 13, 2006).
  58. ^ A brief history of Turtle Island Captain-Johns.com (PDF) (accessed May 13, 2006).

References

  • Emmanuel, Greg (1960). "Hate: The Early Years". The 100-Yard War : Inside the 100-Year-Old Michigan-Ohio State Football Rivalry. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0471675520.
  • Galloway, Tod B. (1895). The Ohio-Michigan Boundary Line Dispute. 4 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 213.
  • Mendenhall, T.C. & Graham, A.A. (1895). Boundary Line Between Ohio and Indiana, and Between Ohio and Michigan. 4 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 127.
  • Mitchell, Gordon (July, 2004). History Corner: Ohio-Michigan Boundary War, Part 2. 24 Professional Surveyor Magazine 7.
  • Wittke, Karl. (1895). The Ohio-Michigan Boundary Dispute Re-examined. 45 Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 299.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toledo_War&oldid=56041749"