Criticism of Zoroastrianism
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Criticism of Zoroastrianism has taken place over many centuries not only from the adherents of other religions but also among Zoroastrians themselves seeking to reform the faith.
Zoroaster
[edit]In the early 19th century, a Christian missionary based in British India, John Wilson, claimed that Zoroaster never had a genuine divine commission (or ever claimed such a role),[1] never performed miracles, or uttered prophecies and that the story of his life is "a mere tissue of comparatively modern fables and fiction."[2][3] Others assert that all the available Zoroastrian sources regarding Zoroaster only provide conflicting images about him,[4] especially between earlier and later sources.[5]
Monotheistic
[edit]Darius clearly states in the Biston Inscription that “I am the king by the will of Ahuramazda, and Ahuramazda has entrusted me with power.” (Paragraph 5) This stone inscription does not give us much information about the religious issues of the time. This raises the question: Is the religion mentioned in this stone inscription a type of Zoroastrian religion.[6]
What is common between the Zoroastrian inscriptions and the Achaemenid inscriptions is the name of Ahuramazda, the presence of the Divan, and the principles of falsehood and falsehood. But in these inscriptions other gods are mentioned[7]
The orientalist Arthur Christensen in his book ''Iran During The Sassanid Era'', mentioned that the sources dating back to the era of the Sasanian state in ancient Persian that refer to the Zoroastrian doctrine do not match the sources that appeared after the collapse of the state, such as the Pahlavi source and others. The reason is that because of the fall of the Sasanian state, the Zoroastrian clerics tried to save their religion from extinction through modifying it to resemble the religion of Muslims to retain followers in the Zoroastrian religion.[8]
The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies comments that the Islamic conquest of Persia caused a huge impact on the Zoroastrian doctrine.
After the Islamic conquest of Persia and the migration of many Zoroastrians to India and after being exposed to Islamic and Christian propaganda, the Zoroastrians, especially the Parsis in India, went so far as to deny dualism and consider themselves completely monotheists. After several transformations and developments, one of the distinctive features of the Zoroastrian religion gradually faded away and almost disappeared from modern Zoroastrianism
— [1]
This provides an explanation of why there is numbers of parallels have been drawn between Zoroastrian teachings and Islam. Such parallels include the evident similarities between Amesha Spenta and the archangel Gabriel, praying five times a day, covering one's head during prayer, and the mention of Thamud and Iram of the Pillars in the Quran.
Quoting from other religions
[edit]The migration of Parsis to India caused a lack of religious knowledge, which led to doubts in several matters, which made them send men to Iran during the Muslim rule in order to learn the religion from the Zoroastrians in Iran. However, according to the orientalist Arthur Christensen and several Arab historians, the Zoroastrian doctrine changed after the fall of the Sassanid state because the Zoroastrian clerics tried to save their religion from extinction by modifying it to resemble the religion of the Muslims. So that the Zoroastrians would not have a reason to convert to Islam, but this did not succeed in preventing the Zoroastrians from converting to Islam, and it also caused the emergence of a new version of Zoroastrianism that resembled Islam and differed from Zoroastrianism in the Sassanid era.[9][10][11]
The spread of Zoroastrianism
[edit]Henrik Samuel Nyberg, an Iranian-Swedish scholar, considered discussions and opinions on Achaemenid Zoroastrianism to be full of partisan prejudice and superstition among scholars of his time and referred to these debates as some of the most painful and misleading. Which did not occur in the human sciences [12]and believes that none of the essential characteristics of Zoroastrianism can be seen in the basic constructions of the Achaemenid religion[13].
Also there is no other material that could give these inscriptions a Zoroastrian color.[14]
Literature
[edit]The Encyclopædia Iranica indicates that the stories of Zoroaster's life were distorted by quoting stories from Christianity and Judaism and attributing them to Zoroaster, but the most quotations were from Islam after the entry of Muslims into Persia, as it was a means for the Zoroastrian clergy to strengthen their religion.[15]
The Dasatir-i-Asmani, while being accepted by Zoroastrian communities in Iran and India as genuine, especially by the Kadmi, it is generally believed to be a forgery.[16]
Wilson argued that the Avesta could not be divinely inspired because much of its text was irrevocably lost or unintelligible[17][18] and Martin Haug, who greatly helped the Parsis of India to defend their religion against the attacks of such Christian missionaries as Wilson, considered the Gathas to be the only texts and only authoritative scriptures that could be attributed to Zoroaster.[19]
Polytheism
[edit]John Wilson attacked the Zoroastrian reverence of the Amesha Spenta and Yazatas as a form of polytheism, although the Parsis at the time immediately refuted this allegation and insisted that he had in fact addressed the Bundahishn, a text whose relevance to their practice was remote.[20][21] Critics also commonly claim that Zoroastrians are worshipers of other deities and elements of nature, such as of fire—with one prayer, the Litany to the fire (Atesh Niyaesh),[22] stating: "I invite, I perform (the worship) of you, the Fire, O son of Ahura Mazdā together with all fires"—and Mithra.[23] Some critics have charged Zoroastrians with being followers of dualism, who only claimed to be followers of monotheism in modern times to confront the powerful influence of Christian and Western thought which "hailed monotheism as the highest category of theology."[24] Critics insist that the monotheistic reformist view is seen to contradict the conservative (or traditional) view of a dualistic worldview most evident in the relationship between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu.[25] and arguing that Zoroastrians follow a belief system influenced by henotheism. Other Western scholars such as Martin Haug, however, have dismissed the concept of theological dualism as a corruption of Zoroaster's original teachings, gradually added by later adherents of the faith.[26] Critics add that the fact that such differing views have proliferated is a sign of the enigmatic nature of the Zoroastrian beliefs regarding the divinity.[27]
Intra-Zoroastrian divisions
[edit]Zoroastrian reformers, such as Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla, have argued that literary precedence should be given to the Gathas, as a source of authority and textual authenticity. They have also deplored and criticized many Zoroastrian rituals (e.g. excessive ceremonialism and focus on purity,[28][29] using "bull's urine for ritual cleansing, the attendance of a dog to gaze at the corpse during funerary rites, the exposure of corpses on towers [for consumption by vultures and ravens]")[30][31] and theological and cosmological doctrines as not befitting of the faith.[32] This orthodox versus reformist controversy rages even on the internet.[33]
Divisions and tensions also exist between Iranian and Indian Zoroastrians and over such issues as the authority of a hereditary priesthood in the transmission and interpretation of the faith, ethnicity and the nature of Ahura Mazda.[34] Historically, differences also existed between the Zoroastrian branches of Zurvanism, Mazdakism and Mazdaism.[35]
Who is a Zoroastrian (Zarathushti)?
[edit]Much like the question of who is a Jew?, Zoroastrian identity, especially whether it is adopted through birth or belief (or both), "remains a cause for tension" within the community.[36][37] Reformers have criticised the orthodox refusal to accept religious converts as one reason for the communities' declining population.[38]
Predestination
[edit]Zoroastrians have been criticized by Muslim authors for their rejection of predestination.[39][40] This follows a famous hadith of Muhammad in which he negatively associates the Qadariyah Islamic sect with the Magians.[41][42]
Patriarchy
[edit]Zoroastrianism has been criticized for the perception that it promotes a patriarchal system, expressed through such avenues as an all-male priesthood and its historical allowance of polygamy—practiced by Zoroaster himself.[43][44][45]
References
[edit]- ^ Sharma, Suresh K.; Sharma, Usha, eds. (2004). Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism. Mittal Publications. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9788170999621.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 206–7. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Stausberg, Michael; Vevaina, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw, eds. (2015). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 75. ISBN 9781118785508.
- ^ S. Nigosian (1993). Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780773564381.
- ^ Sharma, Suresh K.; Sharma, Usha, eds. (2004). Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism. Mittal Publications. p. 14. ISBN 9788170999621.
- ^ “An introduction and review of The Religions of Ancient Iran, the famous work by Wyden Green
- ^ Book. Spring from myth to history.161.
- ^ Christensen, Arthur (1936). Book Iran During The Sassanid Era. p. 421.
- ^ Hinnells, John; Williams, Alan (2007-10-22). Parsis in India and the Diaspora. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-06751-0.
- ^ PARSI COMMUNITIES i. EARLY HISTORY – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Iranicaonline.org (2008-07-20). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
- ^ Parsee, n. and adj. - Oxford English Dictionary. oed.com. Retrieved on 2015-03-03.
- ^ Nyberg, Henrik Samuel (1359). Religions of ancient Iran. Translated by Saif al-Din Najmabadi. Tehran: Iranian Center for the Study of Cultures.
- ^ Nayberg, Religions of Ancient Iran, 372; Zakka, “Are the Achaemenids Zoroastrians?”, Bukhara, 26 and 27.
- ^ Banunism, Iranian Religion, 31-36.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "ZOROASTRIANISM II. HISTORICAL REVIEW: FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO MODERN TIMES". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. p. 204. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 205–6. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Kenneth Boa (1990). Cults, World Religions and the Occult (revised ed.). David C Cook. p. 48. ISBN 9780896938236.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 207–8. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Rose, Jenny (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. p. 205. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Stausberg, Michael, ed. (2004). Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (illustrated ed.). BRILL. pp. 479–80. ISBN 9789004131316.
- ^ Hinnells, John R. (2005). The Zoroastrian Diaspora: Religion and Migration (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 706. ISBN 9780198267591.
- ^ Stausberg, Michael, ed. (2004). Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (illustrated ed.). BRILL. pp. 50, 298–99. ISBN 9789004131316.
- ^ Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1914). Zoroastrian Theology: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. p. 337.
- ^ Nigosian, S. (1993). Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780773564381.
- ^ Rose, Jenny (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 207–208. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Nigosian, S. (1993). Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 23. ISBN 9780773564381.
- ^ Kenneth Boa (1990). Cults, World Religions and the Occult (revised ed.). David C Cook. p. 48. ISBN 9780896938236.
- ^ Stausberg, Michael, ed. (2004). Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 43. ISBN 9789004131316.
- ^ S. Nigosian (1993). Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780773564381.
- ^ Stausberg, Michael, ed. (2004). Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 471. ISBN 9789004131316.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. p. 208. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Stausberg, Michael, ed. (2004). Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 51. ISBN 9789004131316.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 221–2. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge. p. 608. ISBN 9781134691159.
- ^ Jenny Rose (2014). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 210–11, 220. ISBN 9780857719713.
- ^ Ariane Sherine (2013). "Zoroastrianism needs to adapt its archaic laws – or die". Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
- ^ Laurie Goodstein (2006). "Zoroastrians Keep the Faith, and Keep Dwindling". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
- ^ Ibn Taymiyyah (1976). Memon, Muhammad Umar (ed.). Ibn Taimiya's Struggle Against Popular Religion: With an Annotated Translation of His Kitab iqtida as-sirat al-mustaqim mukhalafat ashab al-jahim (reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 117. ISBN 9783111662381.
- ^ Tamim Ansary (2010). Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes (illustrated, reprint ed.). PublicAffairs. p. 9. ISBN 9781586488130.
- ^ Richard C. Martin; Mark R. Woodward; Dwi S. Atmaja (1997). Atmaja, Dwi S. (ed.). Defenders of Reason in Islam: Mu'tazilism from Medieval School to Modern Symbol (illustrated ed.). Oneworld Publications. p. 86. ISBN 9781851681471.
- ^ Muhammad Qasim Zaman (1997). Religion and Politics Under the Early ʻAbbāsids: The Emergence of the Proto-Sunnī Elite. BRILL. p. 62. ISBN 9789004106789.
- ^ Ghada Hashem Talhami (2013). Historical Dictionary of Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 186, 372. ISBN 9780810868588.
- ^ Dale T. Irvin; Scott Sunquist (2002). History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453 (illustrated ed.). A&C Black. p. 202. ISBN 9780567088666.
- ^ Solomon Alexander Nigosian (1993). The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research (reprint ed.). McGill-Queen's Press. p. 13. ISBN 9780773511446.