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Hämeenlinna

Coordinates: 60°59′40″N 24°28′00″E / 60.99444°N 24.46667°E / 60.99444; 24.46667
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(Redirected from Hämeenlinna, Finland)

Hämeenlinna
Tavastehus
City
Hämeenlinnan kaupunki
Tavastehus stad
City of Hämeenlinna
Häme Castle.
Häme Castle.
Coat of arms of Hämeenlinna
Coat of arms
Location of Hämeenlinna in Finland
Location of Hämeenlinna in Finland
OpenStreetMap
Map
Interactive map outlining Hämeenlinna.
Coordinates: 60°59′40″N 24°28′00″E / 60.99444°N 24.46667°E / 60.99444; 24.46667
Country Finland
Region Kanta-Häme
Sub-regionHämeenlinna sub-region
Charter1639
Government
 • City managerOlli-Poika Parviainen
Area
 (2018-01-01)[1]
 • Total2,031.53 km2 (784.38 sq mi)
 • Land1,785.35 km2 (689.33 sq mi)
 • Water245.79 km2 (94.90 sq mi)
 • Rank34th largest in Finland
Population
 (2024-08-31)[2]
 • Total68,296
 • Rank15th largest in Finland
 • Density38.25/km2 (99.1/sq mi)
Population by native language
[3]
 • Finnish92.8% (official)
 • Swedish0.4%
 • Others6.8%
Population by age
[4]
 • 0 to 1414.5%
 • 15 to 6459.3%
 • 65 or older26.2%
Time zoneUTC+02:00 (EET)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+03:00 (EEST)
Websitewww.hameenlinna.fi

Hämeenlinna (Finnish: [ˈhæmeːnˌlinːɑ]; Swedish: Tavastehus; Karelian: Hämienlinna; Latin: Tavastum or Croneburgum[6]) is a city in Finland and the regional capital of Kanta-Häme. It is located in the southern interior of the country and on the shores of Lake Vanajavesi. The population of Hämeenlinna is approximately 68,000, while the sub-region has a population of approximately 94,000. It is the 15th most populous municipality in Finland, and the 14th most populous urban area in the country.

Hämeenlinna is the oldest inland city in Finland[7] and was one of the most important Finnish cities until the 19th century. Hämeenlinna was located in the heart of the historic province of Tavastia. Since then, Hämeenlinna has remained an important regional centre. The medieval Häme Castle (also known as Tavastia Castle) is located in the town.

Hämeenlinna is known as the birthplace of the Finnish national composer Jean Sibelius. It is now part of the Kanta-Häme region and was the residence of the Governor of the province of Southern Finland until 2010. Nearby cities include the capital Helsinki (98 km or 61 mi), Tampere (73 km or 45 mi) and Lahti (72 km or 45 mi), the regional centre of Päijänne Tavastia (Päijät-Häme).

The neighbouring municipalities of Hämeenlinna are Akaa, Asikkala, Hattula, Hausjärvi, Hollola, Janakkala, Loppi, Padasjoki, Pälkäne, Tammela, Urjala and Valkeakoski. The former municipalities of Hauho, Kalvola, Lammi, Renko and Tuulos were merged with Hämeenlinna on 1 January 2009;[8] with these mergers, the municipality of Hattula is almost completely surrounded by Hämeenlinna.

The coat of arms of Hämeenlinna is based on the 17th-century town seal, which in turn refers to the Häme Castle built by the Lake Vanajavesi in the Middle Ages, near which the city was founded. The current coat of arms was designed by Gustaf von Numers on the basis of the old coat of arms, and was confirmed on September 21, 1956.[9][10]

History

[edit]
Hämeenlinna by Magnus von Wright between 1845 and 1852.
Häme Regiment was founded in 1626.

Vanaja is the name of a settlement next to Vanajavesi that had been in existence since the Viking Age. The castle was built in the late 13th century to secure Swedish power in central Finland. A village was established near Häme Castle to provide services and goods to its inhabitants.

The village was granted city rights on January 19, 1639,[11] but Hämeenlinna, which still after that looked more like a rural village, developed very slowly, which was a typical problem for inland cities in Finland compared to the most prosperous coastal cities.[12] In 1777, King Gustav III of Sweden moved it one kilometre (0.6 miles) south to the hill on which it still stands.[12]

Hämeenlinna has hosted numerous royal and imperial visits, including the visits of the Kings of Sweden Gustavus Adolphus, Adolf Frederick, Gustav III, and Gustav IV Adolf. The city was also visited by Russian Emperors Alexander I and Alexander II, Grand Dukes of Finland.[13]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Hämeenlinna and its region became known for its grand summer residences, such as Karlberg Manor (Aulanko) and Vanajanlinna Manor.[14][15]

The city is known for its schools and academies where many famous Finns have studied.[16] Schools, government and the military have characterised the life of Hämeenlinna throughout history.

Finland's first railway line, the Finnish Main Railway (Finnish: Suomen päärata, Swedish: Stambanan), opened between Hämeenlinna and Helsinki on March 17, 1862.[17][18][19] The current Hämeenlinna railway station (Rautatieasema in Finnish) was built in 1921.

During the Finnish Civil War in 1918, Hämeenlinna was initially in the area controlled by the Reds, but the Whites captured the city with the help of the Germans in the Battle of Hämeenlinna.[20] After the war, the Hämeenlinna prison camp established for red prisoners operated in the Poltinaho barracks area, and it was known as one of the most notorious high-discipline camps in the history of the Civil War, where female prisoners were also kept.[21] By mid-September, over 2,000 Red prisoners died in the prison camp,[22] mainly for communicable diseases such as smallpox, scarlet fever, typhus and Spanish flu.[23]

After World War II, Hämeenlinna underwent significant transformation as Finland shifted from a wartime economy to peacetime recovery. The city experienced substantial reconstruction efforts, which included the renovation of damaged infrastructure and the development of new housing to accommodate returning soldiers and their families.[24]

Häme County received 73,812 war refugees from Karelia. Of all the war refugees, 90 percent were Finns. Hämeenlinna specifically welcomed these refugees, and the Ojoinen Borough was constructed to accommodate them.[25][26][27][28]

Post-war period saw an increase in population as people moved to Hämeenlinna for job opportunities in various sectors. Hämeenlinna also embraced industrialisation during this era, with manufacturing becoming a cornerstone of its economy. The city’s strategic location facilitated trade and transport, further promoting economic development.[24]

The establishment of educational institutions, such as the Häme University of Applied Sciences, contributed to the city's growth and modernisation. Additionally, cultural initiatives flourished, with museums and theaters enhancing the local cultural landscape. The Artillery Museum of Finland, which opened in 1997, became a key attraction, showcasing the military history and heritage of the region.[29][30][31][32]

The Prime Ministers and ministers of Finland and Sweden gathered for a historic and joint meeting in Hämeenlinna in 2009.[33]

Geography

[edit]
Aulanko next to Vanajavesi.

There are a total of 339 lakes in whole or in part in the area of the city of Hämeenlinna. The largest of them are Lake Vanajavesi, Lake Kukkia and Lake Kuohijärvi.[34] The main features of the Hämeenlinna landscape are the Häme Lake Plateau, the Vanajavesi Valley and the Kanta-Häme Grove Center. In many places, the landscapes are marked by the prosperous Tavastian agricultural culture.[35][36]

The city has several nature reserves, the largest of which are located in the popular recreation areas of Aulanko and Ahvenisto on the outskirts of the city. In total, there are 31 Natura 2000 areas in the city of Hämeenlinna.[37] In addition, Hämeenlinna has Finland's first national urban park, established in 2001.[38]

Climate

[edit]
Climate data for Hämeenlinna Lammi Pappila (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1963–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 7.7
(45.9) 		7.8
(46.0) 		15.9
(60.6) 		23.7
(74.7) 		29.0
(84.2) 		31.8
(89.2) 		33.2
(91.8) 		32.6
(90.7) 		25.9
(78.6) 		19.2
(66.6) 		12.8
(55.0) 		10.2
(50.4) 		33.2
(91.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −3.1
(26.4) 		−3.0
(26.6) 		1.6
(34.9) 		8.5
(47.3) 		15.5
(59.9) 		19.5
(67.1) 		22.0
(71.6) 		20.5
(68.9) 		14.8
(58.6) 		7.5
(45.5) 		2.1
(35.8) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		8.7
(47.7)
Daily mean °C (°F) −5.8
(21.6) 		−6.3
(20.7) 		−2.5
(27.5) 		3.5
(38.3) 		9.8
(49.6) 		14.2
(57.6) 		16.9
(62.4) 		15.1
(59.2) 		10.2
(50.4) 		4.5
(40.1) 		0.2
(32.4) 		−3.3
(26.1) 		4.7
(40.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −8.6
(16.5) 		−9.5
(14.9) 		−6.2
(20.8) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		3.9
(39.0) 		8.8
(47.8) 		11.6
(52.9) 		10.5
(50.9) 		6.5
(43.7) 		1.9
(35.4) 		−1.9
(28.6) 		−5.6
(21.9) 		0.9
(33.6)
Record low °C (°F) −37.4
(−35.3) 		−36.2
(−33.2) 		−28.5
(−19.3) 		−15.9
(3.4) 		−10.7
(12.7) 		−2.0
(28.4) 		0.9
(33.6) 		−0.3
(31.5) 		−6.0
(21.2) 		−15.7
(3.7) 		−22.1
(−7.8) 		−34.2
(−29.6) 		−37.4
(−35.3)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 49
(1.9) 		37
(1.5) 		34
(1.3) 		32
(1.3) 		41
(1.6) 		64
(2.5) 		79
(3.1) 		72
(2.8) 		54
(2.1) 		66
(2.6) 		58
(2.3) 		53
(2.1) 		639
(25.2)
Average precipitation days 12 9 8 7 8 10 11 10 9 11 11 12 118
Source 1: FMI climatological normals for Finland 1991–2020[39]
Source 2: Record highs and lows 1963–present[40]

Cityscape

[edit]
Town Hall of Hämeenlinna was designed by architect Carl Alfred Cavén. The town hall was completed in 1888.
The church of Hämeenlinna by architect Louis Jean Desprez. The church was completed in 1798.

The center of Hämeenlinna is located on the Saarinen Hill on the shores of Lake Vanajavesi, and is bordered on the west by Highway 3 (E12), while Highway 10 bypasses the city to the south and east. The street network in the center is based on a grid pattern drawn up by Carl Ludvid Engel in 1832 with the Market Square as its center.[41] On the edge of the market square are the town hall, Hämeenlinna Church and the Häme County Government House.[42] The city center is divided into four districts, which are Linnanniemi, Koilliskulma, Hämeensaari and Saaristenmäki. Raatihuoneenkatu, which has been partially transformed into a pedestrian street, is the most significant shopping street in the city center; for example, at the western end of the street, the Goodman Shopping Center was completed in October 2014.[43]

There are plenty of buildings of different styles in the city center, and in proportion to the city's population, it is quite large and densely built. The most significant expansion direction in the city center in the 2010s has been the Keinusaari district on the other side of Lake Vanajavesi, where, for example, the city's railway station is located. Supplementary construction has also been carried out in the city center on an ongoing basis. The center of Hämeenlinna has been ridiculed as the "Finland's largest lit cemetery".[44]

Demographics

[edit]

Population

[edit]

The city of Hämeenlinna has 68,296 inhabitants, making it the 15th most populous municipality in Finland. The Hämeenlinna region has a population of 93,737. In Hämeenlinna, 6.0% of the population has a foreign background, which is below the national average.[45]

Population size of Hämeenlinna (and merged municipalities) 1990–2020[45]
Year Population
1990
61,222
1995
62,080
2000
63,033
2005
64,271
2010
66,829
2015
68,011
2020
67,848

Languages

[edit]

Population by mother tongue (2023)[46]

  Finnish (92.8%)
  Estonian (0.7%)
  Russian (0.7%)
  Arabic (0.7%)
  Persian (0.5%)
  Swedish (0.4%)
  English (0.4%)
  Other (3.9%)

Hämeenlinna is a monolingual Finnish-speaking municipality. The majority of the population – 63,397 people or 92.8% – speak Finnish as their first language. There are 256 Swedish speakers in Hämeenlinna, or 0.4% of the population. 6.8% of the population of Hämeenlinna have a mother tongue other than Finnish or Swedish.[46] As English and Swedish are compulsory school subjects, functional bilingualism or trilingualism acquired through language studies is not uncommon.

At least 40 different languages are spoken in Hämeenlinna. The most common foreign languages are Estonian (0.7%), Russian (0.7%), Arabic (0.7%) and Farsi (0.5%).[46]

Immigration

[edit]
Population by country of birth (2022)[45]
Nationality Population %
 Finland 64,094 94.2
 Estonia 424 0.6
 Soviet Union 380 0.6
 Iraq 277 0.4
 Poland 207 0.3
 Turkey 183 0.3
 Afghanistan 177 0.3
 Thailand 160 0.2
 Somalia 157 0.2
 Syria 111 0.2
 Russia 110 0.2
Other 1,571 2.3

As of 2023, there were 4,677 persons with a migrant background living in Hämeenlinna, or 6.8% of the population.[note 1] The number of residents who were born abroad was 4,536, or 6.6% of the population. The number of persons with foreign citizenship living in Hämeenlinna was 3,293.[46] Most foreign-born citizens came from the Estonia, former Soviet Union, Iraq and Poland.[45]

The relative share of immigrants in Hämeenlinna's population is below to the national average. However, the city's new residents are increasingly of foreign origin. This will increase the proportion of foreign residents in the coming years.

Religion

[edit]

In 2023, the Evangelical Lutheran Church was the largest religious group with 67.8% of the population of Hämeenlinna. Other religious groups accounted for 2.5% of the population. 29.7% of the population had no religious affiliation.[48]

Economy

[edit]
Goodman shopping center in Hämeenlinna is named after singer Irwin Goodman.

The economic structure of Hämeenlinna is close to the national average. In 2015, there were 28,270 jobs in the city. Of these, 75% were in the service sector, 3% in primary production (agriculture, forestry and fisheries) and 21% in processing. The share of the unemployed was 13,6%.[49]

Largest employers

[edit]

Source:[50]

By number of employees:

Education

[edit]
The Hämeenlinna Lyceum was founded in 1873.

Hämeenlinna is home to HAMK Häme University of Applied Sciences' headquarters.[51] Founded in 1873, Hämeenlinna Lyceum has many cultural influencers. The school is one of the most famous educational institutions in Finland, as many well-known Finns have graduated from the institution; examples include master composer Jean Sibelius and president Juho Kusti Paasikivi.[16] Hämeenlinna Lyceum has a middle school (grades 7–9) and a high school. Another of the high schools in Hämeenlinna's inner city is Kauriala High School. Hämeenlinna's Lyceum and Kauriala High School were to be combined in the fall of 2018 to form a large high school with more than a thousand students on the Hattelmala campus of the Tavastia Education Consortium.[52] However, the city council decided to cancel the high school project in the spring of 2018, and the high schools will continue to be separate.[53]

Culture

[edit]
Verkatehdas in Hämeenlinna.

Museums

[edit]

Hämeenlinna is home to a diverse range of museums, including Häme Castle, Hämeenlinna Art Museum, Iittala Glass Museum, Prison Museum, Skogster Museum (Hämeenlinna City Museum), Birthplace of Jean Sibelius, and Artillery, Engineer and Signals Museum of Finland (Militaria Museum).[54]

Verkatehdas - Cultural and Conference Center

[edit]

Verkatehdas is a well-known cultural and conference center situated in Hämeenlinna, Finland. Originally a textile factory, it has been repurposed into a versatile venue that hosts a wide range of events and activities.[55]

BioRex Verkatehdas: This modern cinema, located within the complex, features five screening rooms equipped with advanced technology, including 4K laser projectors and Xpandin 3D capabilities.[56]

Hämeenlinna Art Museum: Situated in the Verkatehdas area, this museum showcases Finnish and international visual art. It boasts an extensive collection of over 8,000 works and frequently hosts temporary exhibitions.[57]

Gastronomy

[edit]

Hämeenlinna is emerging as a notable gastronomy destination in Finland, characterized by its diverse culinary offerings and a growing number of high-quality restaurants.[58]

In the 1980s, the following dishes were named Hämeenlinna's traditional cuisine: as a daily meal, smoked ham and sourdough bread; as a festive meal, the herring wrapped in rye dough or kalaleipä, i.e. "fish bread", buttermilk and beer, and the riistansylttääjän lintupaisti, which is pheasant stuffed with almonds, potato and apple slices.[59]

Häme Medieval Festival.

Festivals

[edit]
  • Wanaja Festival is annual music festival held in Linnanpuisto, this event has grown in popularity, showcasing both local and international artists. It attracts large crowds each summer, emphasizing Hämeenlinna's vibrant music scene.[60]
  • Häme Medieval Festival celebrates medieval culture with activities, performances, and markets. It has become a staple event in August, drawing visitors interested in history and reenactments.[61]

Sport

[edit]

Notable natives or residents

[edit]
The birthhome of composer Jean Sibelius in Hämeenlinna.

International relations

[edit]
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Finland and Twin towns and sister cities
Commemorative plaque of Hämeenlinna in Celle, Germany.

Twin towns – Sister cities

[edit]

Hämeenlinna is twinned with:[69]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Statistics Finland classifies a person as having a "foreign background" if both parents or the only known parent were born abroad.[47]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Area of Finnish Municipalities 1.1.2018" (PDF). National Land Survey of Finland. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
  2. ^ "Finland's preliminary population figure was 5,625,011 at the end of August 2024". Population structure. Statistics Finland. 24 September 2024. ISSN 1797-5395. Retrieved 25 September 2024.
  3. ^ "Population growth biggest in nearly 70 years". Population structure. Statistics Finland. 26 April 2024. ISSN 1797-5395. Retrieved 29 April 2024.
  4. ^ "Population according to age (1-year) and sex by area and the regional division of each statistical reference year, 2003–2020". StatFin. Statistics Finland. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  5. ^ a b "Luettelo kuntien ja seurakuntien tuloveroprosenteista vuonna 2023". Tax Administration of Finland. 14 November 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  6. ^ J. G. Th. Graesse: Orbis Latinus (Dresdae: Schönfeld, 1861; 1909. Brunsvici, 1972, 3 voll.) (in Latin)
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  8. ^ "Valtioneuvoston päätös Hauhon kunnan, Kalvolan kunnan, Lammin kunnan, Rengon kunnan ja Tuuloksen kunnan liittämisestä Hämeenlinnan kaupunkiin sekä eräiden alueiden siirtämisestä Hattulan kunnasta Hämeenlinnan kaupunkiin" (in Finnish). Finlex. 3 July 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  9. ^ Hagerlund, Tony (12 January 2010). "Vaakunat: Haapajärvi – Hämeenlinna" (in Finnish). Suomen Kuntaliitto. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
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  12. ^ a b Karpiola, Saila (9 October 2022). "Maanalaista kaupunkia ei ole koskaan tutkittu, mutta maan alla piilotteleva vanha Hämeenlinna voi vielä yllättää löytäjänsä iloisesti". Hämeen Sanomat (in Finnish). Retrieved 10 October 2022.
  13. ^ Koskela, Hannu (14 June 2017). "Suomen keskiaikaiset kivilinnat 2/6: Hämeen linna". Apu.fi (in Finnish). Retrieved 6 October 2024.
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  15. ^ Silfverhjelm, Eric; Standertskjöld, Hugo (1965). Aulanko: Pohjolan kaunein turistikeskus ja suurin puisto: eversti Hugo Standertskjöld ja hänen elämäntyönsä (Uud., laaj. p ed.). Hämeenlinna: Aulanko.
  16. ^ a b "Kuka kävi Lyskan ja missä?". Hämeen Sanomat (in Finnish). 14 June 2015. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
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  18. ^ Neil Kent: Helsinki: A Cultural History, p. 18. Interlink Books, 2014. ISBN 978-1566565448.
  19. ^ "Tulihevonen saapui ensi kerran Hämeenlinnaan 150 vuotta sitten" [The "fire horse" arrived first time in Hämeenlinna 150 years ago]. Yle Häme (in Finnish). Yle. 31 January 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
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  21. ^ "Hämeenlinnan pahamaineisen punavankileirin vaietuista naisvangeista kirja". Yle (in Finnish). 19 April 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  22. ^ "Punaisten joukkohautojen muistokivet" (in Finnish). City of Hämeenlinna. 27 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  23. ^ Peltonen, Ari-Pekka (2013). "Espanjantautia Hämeenlinnassa – Vuosien 1918–1920 influenssapandemia Hämeenlinnan kaupungissa" (PDF) (in Finnish). Department of History and Geography; University of Eastern Finland. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  24. ^ a b Tuominen, Jorma; Haapala, Pertti; Hietanen, Silvo; Jutikkala, Eino; Sinisalo, Hannu; Maula, Jere; Soikkanen, Hannu; Kiuasmaa, Kyösti; Myllyniemi, Seppo, eds. (1986). Hämeen historia. V: Toisen maailmansodan jälkeinen aika. Hämeenlinna: Hämeen heimoliitto. ISBN 978-951-99761-9-8.
  25. ^ "Evakkojen tarina: Kultareunaiset astiat olivat säilyneet ehjinä, mutta ne haudattiin takaisin maahan – "Ajateltiin, että joskus me vielä nämä haetaan täältä"". Apu.fi (in Finnish). 21 March 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  26. ^ "Siirtoväki - Karjalan Liitto". www.karjalanliitto.fi (in Finnish). Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  27. ^ Havansi, Erkki (14 January 2013). "Karjalan evakoista 1939-1944 oli 90 % supisuomalaisia". Uusi Suomi Puheenvuoro (in Finnish). Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  28. ^ Myllymaa, Wete (2016). Ojoinen story: Hämeenlinnan kaupunginosa historia. Hämeenlinna: Veijo Myllymaa. ISBN 978-952-93-7702-2.
  29. ^ "HAMK kasvatti eniten vetovoimaansa". www.epressi.com (in Finnish). 3 April 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2024.
  30. ^ "Hamkin rehtorit: Rakennetaan yhdessä Hämeenlinnasta yhä vahvempi korkeakoulukaupunki – Haaste kaupungin päättäjille ja yrityksille". Hämeen Sanomat (in Finnish). 22 May 2022. Retrieved 10 October 2024.
  31. ^ "Museo Militaria teki kävijäennätyksensä – suomalaissotilaan ja hänen läheistensä tarina veti väkeä". Yle Uutiset (in Finnish). 14 January 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2024.
  32. ^ "Militaria-museo veti viime vuonna hyvin sotahistoriasta kiinnostuneita – lapsiperheet merkittävä kävijäryhmä". Yle Uutiset (in Finnish). 20 January 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2024.
  33. ^ "Pääministeri Vanhasen puhe Suomen ja Ruotsin hallitusten yhteisessä kokouksessa". Valtioneuvosto (in Finnish). 14 May 2009. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
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  36. ^ Jutila, Heli; Harju, Hannu (2004). "Rengon luonto-opas" (PDF). Hämeenlinnan seudun kansanterveystyön kuntayhtymän ympäristöosasto, NAPA-projekti (in Finnish). Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  37. ^ "Tutustu Natura 2000 -kohteisiin kunnittain". ymparisto.fi (in Finnish). Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  38. ^ "Housing and environment". City of Hämeenlinna. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  39. ^ "FMI normals 1991–2020" (PDF). Finnish Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
  40. ^ "FMI open data". FMI. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
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  43. ^ Hämeenlinnan kaupungin karttapalvelu (in Finnish)
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  49. ^ "Kuntien avainluvut". Tilastokeskus (in Finnish). Retrieved 19 May 2021.
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  51. ^ Häme University of Applied Sciences (HAMK)
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