Moralia
Author | Plutarch |
---|---|
Country | Roman Greece |
Language | Ancient Greek |
Genre | Essays |
Publication date | c. 100 AD |
The Moralia (Latin for "Morals" or "Customs and Mores"; Greek: Ἠθικά, Ethiká) is a group of manuscripts written in Ancient Greek dating from the 10th–13th centuries but traditionally ascribed to the 1st-century scholar Plutarch of Chaeronea.[1] The eclectic collection contains 78 essays and transcribed speeches. They provide insights into Roman and Greek life, but they also include timeless observations. Many generations of Europeans have read or imitated them, including Michel de Montaigne, Renaissance Humanists and Enlightenment philosophers.
Contents[edit]
General structure[edit]
The Moralia include On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great, an important adjunct to Plutarch's Life of the great general; On the Worship of Isis and Osiris, a crucial source of information on Egyptian religious rites;[2] and On the Malice of Herodotus (which may, like the orations on Alexander's accomplishments, have been a rhetorical exercise),[3] in which Plutarch criticizes what he sees as systematic bias in the Histories of Herodotus;[4] along with more philosophical treatises, such as On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind and lighter fare, such as Odysseus and Gryllus ("Bruta animalia ratione uti"), a humorous dialog between Homer's Odysseus and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The Moralia were composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.
Some editions of the Moralia include works later understood as pseudepigrapha. Among these are the Lives of the Ten Orators (biographies of the Attic orators based on Caecilius of Calacte), On the Opinions of the Philosophers, On Fate, and On Music. These works are attributed to "Pseudo-Plutarch".[5] Though the thoughts and opinions recorded are not Plutarch's and come from a slightly later era, they are all classical in origin and have value to the historian.[6]
Books[edit]
Since the Stephanus edition of 1572, the Moralia have traditionally been arranged in 14 books (listed with English, original Greek, and Latin titles):[7]
- I. (1a – 86a)
- 1. On the Education of Children (
Π ε ρ ὶ παίδων ἀγωγῆς – De liberis educandis) - 2. How the Young Man Should Study Poetry (
Π ῶςδ ε ῖτ ὸν νέον ποιημάτων ἀκούειν – Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat) - 3. On Hearing (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ ἀκούειν – De recta ratione audiendi) - 4. How to Tell a Flatterer from a Friend (
Π ῶς ἄν τις διακρίνοιετ ὸν κόλακατ ο ῦ φίλου – Quomodo adulator ab amico internoscatur) - 5. How a Man May Become Aware of his Progress in Virtue (
Π ῶς ἄν τιςα ἴσθοιτο ἑαυτοῦ προκόπτοντος ἐπ ᾿ ἀρετῇ - Quomodo quis suos in virtute sentiat profectus)
- 1. On the Education of Children (
- II. (86b – 171e)
- 6. How to Profit by One's Enemies (
Π ῶς ἄν τις ὑπ ᾿ ἐχθρῶν ὠφελοῖτ ο – De capienda ex inimicis utilitate) - 7. On Having Many Friends (
Π ε ρ ὶ πολυφιλίας – De amicorum multitudine) - 8. On Chance (
Π ε ρ ὶ τύχης - De fortuna) - 9. On Virtue and Vice (
Π ε ρ ὶ ἀρετῆςκ α ὶ κακίας – De virtute et vitio) - 10. Letter of Condolence to Apollonius (Παραμυθητικὸς
π ρ ὸς Ἀπολλώνιον – Consolatio ad Apollonium) - 11. Advice about Keeping Well (Ὑγιεινὰ παραγγέλματα – De tuenda sanitate praecepta)
- 12. Advice to Bride and Groom (Γαμικὰ παραγγέλματα – Coniugalia praecepta)
- 13. Dinner of the Seven Wise Men (Ἑπτά
σ ο φ ῶν συμπόσιον – Septem sapientium convivium) - 14. On Superstition (
Π ε ρ ὶ δεισιδαιμονίας – De superstitione)
- 6. How to Profit by One's Enemies (
- III. (172a – 263c)
- 15. Sayings of Kings and Commanders (Βασιλέων ἀποφθέγματα
κ α ὶ στρατηγών – regum et imperatorum apophthegmata) - 16. Sayings of the Spartans (Ἀποφθέγματα Λακωνικά – apophthegmata Laconica)
- 17. Institutions of the Spartans (
Τ ὰ παλαιὰτ ῶν Λακεδαιμονίων ἐπιτηδεύματα – Instituta Laconica) - 18. Sayings of the Spartan Women (Λακαινῶ
ν ἀποφθέγματα – Lacaenarum apophthegmata) - 19. Virtues of Women (Γυναικῶ
ν ἀρεταί – Mulierum virtutes)
- 15. Sayings of Kings and Commanders (Βασιλέων ἀποφθέγματα
- IV. (263d – 351b)
- 20. Roman Questions (
Α ἴτια Ῥωμαϊκά – Quaestiones Romanae) - 21. Greek Questions (
Α ἴτια Ἑλληνικά – Quaestiones Graecae) - 22. Greek and Roman Parallel Stories (Συναγωγὴ ἱστοριῶ
ν παραλλήλων Ἑλληνικῶν κ α ὶ Ρωμαϊκῶν – Parallela minora) (pseudo-Plutarch) - 23. On the Fortune of the Romans (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῆς Ῥωμαίων τύχης – De fortuna Romanorum) - 24. On the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῆς Ἀλεξάνδρου τύχης ἢ ἀρετῆς – De Alexandri magni fortuna aut virtute) - 25. On the Glory of the Athenians (Πότερον Ἀθηναῖ
ο ι κ α τ ὰ πόλεμον ἢ κατὰ σοφίαν ἐνδοξότεροι – De gloria Atheniensium)
- 20. Roman Questions (
- V. (351c – 438e)
- 26. On Isis and Osiris[8] (
Π ε ρ ὶ Ἴσιδοςκ α ὶ Ὀσίριδος – De Iside et Osiride) - 27. On the epsilon at Delphi (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦε ἶτ ο ῦ ένΔ ε λ φ ο ῖς – De E apud Delphos, 384e – 394c) - 28. Oracles at Delphi no Longer Given in Verse (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦμ ὴχ ρ ᾶν ἔμμετραν ῦν τ ὴν Πυθίαν – De Pythiae oraculis) - 29. On the Obsolescence of Oracles (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῶν ἐκλελοιπότων χρηστηρίων – De defectu oraculorum)
- 26. On Isis and Osiris[8] (
- VI. (439a - 523b)
- 30. Can Virtue be Taught? (
Ε ἰ διδακτὸν ἡ ἀρετή – An virtus doceri possit) - 31. On Moral Virtue (
Π ε ρ ὶ ἠθικῆς ἀρετῆς – De virtute morali) - 32. On the Control of Anger (
Π ε ρ ὶ ἀοργησίας – De cohibenda ira) - 33. On Tranquility of Mind (
Π ε ρ ὶε ὐθυμίας – De tranquillitate animi) - 34. On Brotherly Love (
Π ε ρ ὶ φιλαδελφίας – De fraterno amore) - 35. On Affection for Offspring (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῆςε ἰςτ ὰ ἔγγονα φιλοστοργίας – De amore prolis) - 36. Whether Vice is Sufficient to Cause Unhappiness (
Ε ἰα ὐτάρκης ἡ κακίαπ ρ ὸς κακοδαιμονίαν – An vitiositas ad infelicitatem sufficiat) - 37. Whether Aflictions of the Soul are Worse than Those of the Body (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ πότεροντ ὰ ψυχῆς ἢτ ὰ σώματος πάθη χείρονα – Animine an corporis affectiones sint peiores) - 38. On Talkativeness (
Π ε ρ ὶ ἀδολεσχίας – De garrulitate) - 39. On Being a Busybody (
Π ε ρ ὶ πολυπραγμοσύνης – De curiositate)
- 30. Can Virtue be Taught? (
- VII. (523c – 612b)
- 40. On Love of Wealth (
Π ε ρ ὶ φιλοπλουτίας – De cupiditate divitiarum) - 41. On Compliancy (
Π ε ρ ὶ δυσωπίας – De vitioso pudore) - 42. On Envy and Hate (
Π ε ρ ὶ φθόνουκ α ὶ μίσους – De invidia et odio) - 43. On Praising Oneself Inoffensively (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ ἑαυτὸν ἐπαινεῖν ἀνεπιφθόνως – De laude ipsius) - 44. On the Delays of Divine Vengeance (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῶν ὑπ ὸτ ο ῦ θείου βραδέως τιμωρουμένων – De sera numinis vindicta) - 45. On Fate (
Π ε ρ ὶε ἰμαρμένης – De fato) (pseudo-Plutarch) - 46. On the Sign of Socrates (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ Σωκράτους δαιμονίου – De genio Socratis, 575a – 598e) - 47. On Exile (
Π ε ρ ὶ φυγῆς – De exilio) - 48. Consolation to his Wife (Παραμυθητικὸς
π ρ ὸςτ ὴν γ υ ν α ῖκ α – Consolatio ad uxorem)
- 40. On Love of Wealth (
- VIII. (612c – 748)
- 49. Table Talk (Συμποσιακά – Quaestiones convivales)
- IX. (748 – 771)
- 50. Dialogue on Love (Ἐρωτικός - Amatorius)
- X. (771e – 854d)
- 51. Love Stories (Ἐρωτικαὶ διηγήσεις – Amatoriae narrationes)
- 52. A Philosopher Ought to Converse Especially with Men in Power (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ ὅτ ι μάλιστατ ο ῖς ἡγεμόσιδ ε ῖτ ὸν φιλόσοφον διαλέγεσθαι – Maxime cum principibus philosopho esse disserendum) - 53. To an Uneducated Ruler (
Π ρ ὸς ἡγεμόνα ἀπαίδευτον – Ad principem ineruditum) - 54. Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs (
Ε ἰ πρεσβυτέρῳι πολιτευτέον – An seni respublica gerenda sit) - 55. Precepts of Statecraft (Πολιτικὰ παραγγέλματα – Praecepta gerendae reipublicae)
- 56. On Monarchy, Democracy and Oligarchy (
Π ε ρ ὶ μοναρχίαςκ α ὶ δημοκρατίαςκ α ὶ ὀλιγαρχίας – De unius in republica dominatione, populari statu, et paucorum imperio) - 57. That we Ought Not to Borrow (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦμ ὴδ ε ῖν δανείζεσθαι – De vitando aere alieno) - 58. Lives of the Ten Orators (Βίοι
τ ῶν δέκα ῥητόρων – Vitae decem oratorum) (pseudo-Plutarch) - 59. Comparison between Aristophanes and Menander (Συγκρίσεως Ἀριστοφάνους
κ α ὶ Μενάνδρου ἐπιτομή – Comparationis Aristophanis et Menandri compendium)
- XI. (854e – 919e)
- 60. On the Malice of Herodotus (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῆς Ἡροδότου κακοηθείας – De malignitate Herodoti) - 61. On the Opinions of the Philosophers (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῶν ἀρεσκόντων φιλοσόφοιςφ υ σ ι κ ῶν δογμάτων – De placitis philosophorum) (pseudo-Plutarch) - 62. Causes of Natural Phenomena (
Α ἴτ ι α φυσικά – Quaestiones naturales)
- 60. On the Malice of Herodotus (
- XII. (920a – 999b)
- 63. On the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon[9] (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ ἐμφαινομένου προσώπουτ ῷι κύκλῳι τ ῆς σελήνης – De facie in orbe lunae) - 64. On the Principle of Cold (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ πρώτωςψ υ χ ρ ο ῦ – De primo frigido) - 65. Whether Fire or Water is More Useful (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦ πότερον ὕδωρ ὴπ ῦρ χρησιμώτερον – Aquane an ignis sit utilior) - 66. Whether Land or Sea Animals are Cleverer (Πότερα
τ ῶν ζ ῴω ν φρονιμώτερατ ὰ χερσαία ἢτ ὰ ἔνυδρα – De sollertia animalium) - 67. Beasts are Rational (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ο ῦτ ὰ ἄλογα λόγῳχ ρ ῆσθαι – Bruta animalia ratione uti) - 68. On the Eating of Flesh (
Π ε ρ ὶ σαρκοφαγίας – De esu carnium)
- 63. On the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon[9] (
- XIII. (999c - 1086b)
- 69. Platonic Questions (Πλατωνικὰ ζητήματα – Platonicae quaestiones)
- 70. On the Birth of the Spirit in Timaeus (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῆς ἐν Τιμαίῳ ψυχογονίας – De animae procreatione in Timaeo) - 71. Summary of the Birth of the Spirit (Ἐπιτομή
τ ο ῦ Περὶτ ῆς ἐν τ ῷ Τιμαίῳ ψυχογονίας – Epitome libri de animae procreatione in Timaeo) - 72. On Stoic Self-Contradictions (
Π ε ρ ὶ Στωϊκῶν ἐναντιωμάτων – De Stoicorum repugnantiis) - 73. The Stoics Speak More Paradoxically than the Poets (Ὅ
τ ι παραδοξότεραο ἱ Στωϊκοὶτ ῶν ποιητῶν λέγουσιν – Stoicos absurdiora poetis dicere) - 74. On Common Conceptions against the Stoics (
Π ε ρ ὶτ ῶν κ ο ι ν ῶν ἐννοιῶν π ρ ὸςτ ο ὺς Στωϊκούς – De communibus notitiis adversus Stoicos)
- XIV. (1086c onward)
- 75. It is Impossible to Live Pleasantly in the Manner of Epicurus (Ὅ
τ ι ο ὐδ ὲ ἡδέωςζ ῆν ἔστινκ α τ ’ Ἐπίκουρον – Non posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum) - 76. Against Colotes (
Π ρ ὸς Κωλώτην – Adversus Colotem) - 77. Is the Saying "Live in Obscurity" Right? (
Ε ἰ καλῶςε ἴρηταιτ ὸ λάθε βιώσας – An recte dictum sit latenter esse vivendum) - 78. On Music (
Π ε ρ ὶ μουσικῆς – De musica) (pseudo-Plutarch)
- 75. It is Impossible to Live Pleasantly in the Manner of Epicurus (Ὅ
Editions[edit]
Early manuscripts[edit]
"The catalogue is transmitted by a group of Moralia manuscripts, the oldest of which is the Parisinus gr. 1678 (very damaged in the folia containing the list), a copy from the tenth century, on which a second hand of the twelfth century intervened to add the list; see Irigoin (1987: CCCIII–CCGXVIII for introduction and critical edition of the entire catalogue)." (Oikonomopoulou 174)[10] The only surviving manuscript containing all seventy-eight of the extant treatises included in Plutarch's Moralia dates to sometime shortly after 1302 AD.[11]
Modern editions[edit]
- Plutarch. Moralia. Translated by William Watson Goodwin. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1871. 5 vols.
- Plutarch. Moralia. Translated by Frank Cole Babbitt, et al. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press et al., 1927–2004. 16 vols.[12]
Specific ideas contained[edit]
Origins dilemma[edit]
In his essay "The Symposiacs", Plutarch discusses the famous problem of the chicken and the egg.[13][14][15] Although Plutarch was not the first person to discuss the problem (Aristotle had already discussed it hundreds of years before Plutarch),[16][17][15] he was the first person to put the question into its modern form.[15]
On reincarnation[edit]
Included in Moralia is a letter addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not give way to excessive grief at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother.[18] In the letter, Plutarch expresses his belief in reincarnation:[19]
The soul, being eternal, after death is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things.[18]
On the intellect[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2015) |
Mind or Nous (/ˈnaʊs/, /ˈnuːs/, Greek:
Early humanist editions[edit]
Erasmus of Rotterdam is credited with a prominent role in the dissemination of the Moralia since the early 1500s.[23] He has accessed the Moralia the first time while being an assistant to Demetrius Ducas in Venice.[24] He and Girolamo Aleandro served as the proofreaders of a Greek edition of the Moralia which was published by the Italian printer Aldus Manutius in March 1509.[24] When Erasmus then left Venice for England, he took one book with him.[24] He then began to translate it into Latin in Cambridge 1511.[25] Erasmus published several chapters of the Moralia in England, until the complete Moralia with eight chapters was published in August 1514 in Basel by Johann Froben.[26] By Jorge Leto it is suggested that six chapters were published earlier in late 1513 or early 1514 by Badius Ascensius.[27] The translation of Erasmus saw five editions printed by Froben between 1514 and 1520.[26]
References[edit]
- ^ "The catalogue is transmitted by a group of Moralia manuscripts, the oldest of which is the Parisinus gr. 1678 (very damaged in the folia containing the list), a copy from the tenth century, on which a second hand of the twelfth century intervened to add the list; see Irigoin (1987: CCCIII–CCGXVIII for introduction and critical edition of the entire catalogue)." Xenophontos, Sophia A., and Aikaterini Oikonomopoulou. Brill's Companion to the Reception of Plutarch. Leiden ; Boston, Brill, 2019, p. 174.
- ^ Tobin, Vincent Arieh (1989). Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion. P. Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-1082-1.
- ^ Aubrey Stewart, George Long. "Life of Plutarch". Plutarch's Lives, Volume I (of 4). The Gutenberg Project. Retrieved 2007-01-03.
- ^ Kimball, Roger. "Plutarch and the Issue of Character". The New Criterion Online. Retrieved 2006-12-11.
- ^ Blank, David (2011). "'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'". In Martínez, Javier (ed.). Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas. pp. 33–60. ISBN 9788478827251.
- ^ Marietta, Don E. (1998). Introduction to Ancient Philosophy. M. E. Sharpe. p. 190. ISBN 9780765602169.
- ^ Plutarch's Moralia in Fifteen Volumes, Volume VI, translated by W. C. Helmbold, Harvard University Press, 1962. ix.
- ^ Lacus Curtius online text Isis and Osiris
- ^ Lacus Curtius online text On the Face in the Moon
- ^ Xenophontos, Sophia A, and Aikaterini Oikonomopoulou. Brill's Companion to the Reception of Plutarch. Leiden ; Boston, Brill, 2019, p. 174.
- ^ Manton, G. R. (July–October 1949). "The Manuscript Tradition of Plutarch Moralia". The Classical Quarterly. 43 (3/4): 97–104. doi:10.1017/S0009838800028068. JSTOR 636739. S2CID 162302525.
- ^ "Loeb Volumes". Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 2024-04-21.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Plutarch of Chaeronea. The Symposiacs Question III. [1].
- ^ Delgaldo, José António Fernandez; Pordomingo, Francisca (2017). "Theseis rather than quaestiones convivales". In Georgiadou, Aristoula; Oikonomopoulo, Katerina (eds.). Space, Time and Language in Plutarch. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. p. 293. ISBN 978-3-11-053811-3.
- ^ a b c O'Brien, Carl Séan (2015). The Demiurge in Ancient Thought. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-107-07536-8.
- ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics IX.8 "Thus it is evident that the potential constructions are discovered by being actualized. The reason for this is that the actualization is an act of thinking. Thus potentiality comes from actuality (and therefore it is by constructive action that we acquire knowledge). But this is true only in theabstract, for the individual actuality is posterior in generation to its potentiality."
- ^ Halper, Edward (2012). Aristotle's 'Metaphysics': A Reader's Guide. London, England and New York City, New York: Continuum. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-4411-1773-1.
- ^ a b Plutarch of Chaeronea. "Letter of Consolation".
- ^ Rainer Hirsch-Luipold (2016). "Afterlife and Reincarnation in Plutarch". SBL Philo of Alexandria Seminar.
- ^ Rorty, Richard (1979), Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton University Press page 38.
- ^ Kalkavage (2001), "Glossary", Plato's Timaeus, Focus Publishing.
- ^ LacusCurtius online text: On the Face in the Moon par. 28
- ^ Ledo, Jorge (2019). "Erasmus' Translations of Plutarch's Moralia and the Ascensian editio princeps of ca. 1513". Humanistica Lovaniensia. 68 (2): 257–296. ISSN 0774-2908. JSTOR 27172479.
- ^ a b c Ledo, Jorge (2019).p.259
- ^ Ledo, Jorge (2019).p.260
- ^ a b Ledo, Jorge (2019).pp.270–271
- ^ Ledo, Jorge (2019).p.270
Further reading[edit]
- Aalders, Gerhard J. D. 1982. Plutarch’s Political Thought. Amsterdam: North Holland.
- Chapman, Ann. 2011. The Female Principle in Plutarch’s Moralia. Dublin, Ireland: Univ. of Dublin Press.
- Jones, Christopher P. 1966. "Towards a Chronology of Plutarch’s Works." Journal of Roman Studies 56:61–74.
- Opsomer, Jan. 2007. "The Place of Plutarch in the History of Platonism." In Plutarco e la Cultura della sua Età. Edited by Paola Volpe Cacciatore and Franco Ferrari, 283–309. Naples, Italy: D’Auria.
- Russell, Donald A. 1973. Plutarch. London: Duckworth.
- Titchener, Frances B. 1995. "Plutarch's Use of Thucydides in the Moralia." Phoenix 49.3: 189–200.
- Van der Stockt, Luc. 1999. "A Plutarchan Hypomnema on Self-Love." American Journal of Philology 120:575–599.
- Van der Stockt, Luc. 2000. Rhetorical Theory and Praxis in Plutarch. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
- Van Hoof, Lieve. 2010. Plutarch’s Practical Ethics: The Social Dynamics of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
- Van Nuffelen, Peter. 2011. Rethinking the Gods: Philosophical Readings of Religion in the Post-Hellenistic Period. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Pres
External links[edit]
- Plutarch. Scripta moralia, Volume I, Volume II. Edited by Friedrich Dübner. France, Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1841.
- Plutarch, Morals and Essays Volume 3 from Project Gutenberg
- Plutarch, Moralia. Complete Goodwin translation of 1878 as HTML files tagged with geolocated place names at ToposText (search "Moralia").
- Plutarch at LacusCurtius.
- List of translations from Attalus.org.
- Plutarch, "Sentiments concerning nature", from University of Adelaide.
- Moralia public domain audiobook at LibriVox