Examine individual changes

'{{other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}}{{pp-pc1|expiry=17 March 2013}} {{Coord|38|52|59|N|77|0|59|W |type:landmark_region:US-DC |display=title}} {{Infobox Government agency |agency_name = National Aeronautics and Space Administration |abbreviation = NASA |logo = NASA logo.svg |logo_width = 220px |logo_caption = [[NASA insignia]]<br />Motto: ''For the Benefit of All''<ref name="motto">{{cite web |url=http://www.lightmillennium.org/2004_newyear/gokoglu_nasa_stands_forall.html |title=NASA stands "for the benefit of all."—Interview with NASA's Dr. Süleyman Gokoglu |accessdate=September 29, 1954 |publisher=The Light Millennium |year=2007 |author=Lale Tayla and Figen Bingul}}</ref> |seal = |seal_width = 160px |seal_caption = |formed = {{Start date and years ago|1958|7|29}} |preceding1 = [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics|NACA]] (1915–1958)<ref name="CentNACA">[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/NACA/Tech1.htm U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission, NACA]. Centennialofflight.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-03.</ref> |jurisdiction = [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] |headquarters = Washington, D.C. |latd=38 |latm=52 |lats=59 |latNS=N |longd=77 |longm= 0 |longs=59 |longEW=W |region_code=US-DC |employees = 18,100+<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wicn.nssc.nasa.gov/cognos/cgi-bin/ppdscgi.exe?BZ=1AAABF64VOFoABEwU6VFChhEnYeaEGVJHTJm5v_68kbPGbN_Ysq3BgCPnjZk0bMqYEBKlRxkYMEjE7IMRsw0SJEj21eyu~7_514lZMgWzaCmQCMKG7bcibeCweZOn7FVg5Hji9gZE6tDJ_~ZM0w0PnTJuyJQh_4pJmTB2q7suhjaxaXLmuoTNL06mTBl6W~sDZ9fM25SJ2Sf2VUy6yqm9ZBINr49wiOllxmpiP2l3wD9= |title= NASA workforce profile |publisher=NASA |date=January 11, 2011 |accessdate=December 17, 2012}}</ref> |budget = US$17.8&nbsp;billion (FY 2012)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.discovery.com/space/nasa-2012-budget-ups-downs-111202.html|title=A Mixed Bag for NASA's 2012 Budget|last=Teitel|first=Amy|date=December 2, 2011|publisher=DiscoveryNews|accessdate=January 30, 2012}}</ref><br/>See also [[NASA Budget]] |chief1_name = [[Charles Frank Bolden, Jr.|Charles Bolden]] |chief1_position = [[Administrator of NASA|administrator]] |chief2_name = [[Lori Beth Garver|Lori Garver]] |chief2_position = [[Deputy Administrator of NASA|deputy administrator]] |website = [http://www.nasa.gov/ NASA.gov] }} [[File:Iieartb.jpg|thumb|Vision mission for an interstellar precursor spacecraft by NASA.]] The '''National Aeronautics and Space Administration''' ('''NASA''') is the agency of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] that is responsible for the nation's civilian [[list of space agencies|space program]] and for [[aeronautics]] and [[aerospace]] research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in [[space exploration]], [[Science|scientific discovery]] and aeronautics research."<ref name="do1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/about/highlights/what_does_nasa_do.html|title=What Does NASA Do?|accessdate=August 29, 2007|publisher=NASA|year=2005}}</ref> [[POTUS|President]] [[Eisenhower]] established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 <ref name="Commission2008">Dwight D. Eisenhower and Science & Technology, (2008).Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/onepage/IKE%20&%20Science.Oct08.EN.FINAL%20(v2).pdf Source].</ref> with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]] was passed on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958.<ref name="act1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ogc/about/space_act1.html|title=The National Aeronautics and Space Act|accessdate=August 29, 2007|publisher=NASA|year=2005|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="NacaNASA">{{cite book| author = Bilstein| last = Lucas| first = William R.| title = From naca to nasa| url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch2.htm#32| accessdate = May 27, 2009| date = 1989-07| publisher = NASA| isbn = 978-0-16-004259-1| pages = 32–33 }}</ref> Since that time, most U.S. space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the [[Apollo program|Apollo]] moon-landing missions, the [[Skylab]] space station, and later the [[Space Shuttle]]. Currently, NASA is supporting the [[International Space Station]] and is overseeing the development of the [[Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle]] and [[Commercial Crew Development|Commercial Crew]] vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the [[Launch Services Program]] (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. Most recently, NASA announced a new [[Space Launch System]] that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.<ref name="New Heavy-lift Rocket Will Take Humans Far Beyond Earth">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/sep/HQ_11-301_SLS_Decision.html|title=NASA Announces Design For New Deep Space Exploration System|publisher=NASA|first=NASA|last=Release:11-301|date=September 14, 2011|accessdate=September 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="NASA Briefing on Deep Space Launch System">{{cite web|url=http://www.c-span.org/Events/Press-Conference-on-the-Future-of-NASA-Space-Program/10737424158/|title=Press Conference on the Future of NASA Space Program|publisher=c-span.org|first=C-Span|last=VideoLibrary|date=September 14, 2011|accessdate=September 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Space & Cosmos">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/science/space/15nasa.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1|title=NASA Unveils New Rocket Design|work=The New York Times|date=September 14, 2011|accessdate=September 14, 2011}}</ref> NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the [[Earth Observing System]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/earth-science|title=Earth—NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=June 30, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> advancing [[heliophysics]] through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/heliophysics|title=Heliophysics—NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=January 8, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> exploring bodies throughout the [[Solar System]] with advanced robotic missions such as ''[[New Horizons]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/planetary-science|title=Planets—NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=January 8, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> and researching [[astrophysics]] topics, such as the [[Big Bang]], through the [[Great Observatories program|Great Observatories]] and associated programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics|title=Astrophysics—NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=July 13, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the [[Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite]]. ==Creation== {{Main|The creation of NASA}} From 1946, the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic [[Bell X-1]].<ref name="NACASupersonic">{{cite web|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20100025896_2010028361.pdf |title=The NACA, NASA, and the Supersonic-Hypersonic Frontier |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American [[Project Vanguard]]. After the [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] launch of the world's first artificial [[satellite]] (''[[Sputnik 1]]'') on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]], alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "[[Sputnik crisis]]"), urged immediate and swift action; President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The [[DARPA|Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Fiscal_year_1958_supplemental_military_c.html?id=N-IPAAAAIAAJ |title=Supplemental military construction authorization (Air Force).: Hearings, Eighty-fifth Congress, second session, on H.R. 9739. |date=January 21, 24, 1958}}</ref> On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]], establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100&nbsp;million, three major research laboratories ([[Langley Aeronautical Laboratory]], [[Ames Aeronautical Laboratory]], and [[Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory]]) and two small test facilities.<ref name="Glennan">{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Biographies/glennan.html|title=T. KEITH GLENNAN|publisher=NASA|date=August 4, 2006|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> A [[commons:Logos of NASA|NASA seal]] was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.<ref name="order">[[s:Executive Order 10849|Executive Order 10849 (Wikisource)]]</ref> Elements of the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] and the [[United States Naval Research Laboratory]] were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the [[Space Race]] with the Soviet Union was the technology from the [[V-2 rocket|German rocket program]] (led by [[Wernher von Braun]], who was now working for ABMA) which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist [[Robert Goddard]]'s earlier works.<ref name="recoll">{{cite web|url=http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/recollect-childhood.html|first=Werner|last=von Braun|year=1963|title=Recollections of Childhood: Early Experiences in Rocketry as Told by Werner Von Braun 1963|work=MSFC History Office|publisher=NASA Marshall Space Flight Center|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Earlier research efforts within the [[U.S. Air Force]]<ref name="Glennan" /> and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.<ref name="DARPA">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.arpa.mil/Docs/Intro_-_Van_Atta_200807180920581.pdf|format=PDF|title=50 years of Bridging the Gap|first=Richard|last=Van Atta|date=April 10, 2008|accessdate=July 15, 2009|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20090224210533/http://www.arpa.mil/Docs/Intro_-_Van_Atta_200807180920581.pdf |archivedate = February 24, 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In December 1958, NASA gained control of the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], a contractor facility operated by the [[California Institute of Technology]].<ref name="Glennan" /> ==Space flight programs== [[File:VonBraunMuellerReesSA6.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|At launch control for the May 28, 1964, [[Saturn I#Saturn_I_launches|Saturn I SA-6 launch]]. Von Braun is at center.]] {{Main|List of NASA missions}} The most notable NASA activities are its space flight programs, both manned and unmanned. The latter can be either independent, carrying scientific equipment, or supportive, testing equipment for manned flights. In the beginning, NASA’s missions focused on the space race with the [[Soviet Union]], which won the first round, but later USA took the initiative and won the final race to the Moon. The unmanned missions have until now explored most of our solar system. They have also brought [[Hubble telescope|telescopes for deep space exploration]] into orbit around the Earth together with satellites for [[Explorer program|studying Earth itself]]. ===Manned programs=== The rocket planes experiments started by NACA was taken a step further by NASA which used them as support for spaceflights, the first of which was one-manned and launched by military rockets. When the attention turned to reaching the Moon, the solution chosen was complicated but also the most economical. Supportive projects, both [[Project Gemini|manned]] and [[Surveyor program|unmanned]] were introduced and [[Saturn (rocket family)|bigger rockets]] together with [[Apollo spacecraft|spacecraft and moon lander]] developed. The Moon landing and end of the space race meant a reduction of NASA’s activities. Space stations of a more or less permanent nature, suggested already during the space race, were built and an international cooperation was introduced in an attempt to both bring nations together and at the same time share the high costs of space missions. In all, more than 100 manned missions have been made by NASA since 1958.<ref name="NASAHisStatManned">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats/sect%20B/Human%20Space.pdf |title=Summary of United States Human Space Flight |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> [[File:X-15A2 NB-52B 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|X-15A-2 leaving [[B-52]], 1967]] ====X-15 rocket plane (1959–68)==== {{Main|North American X-15}} The NACA XS-1 ([[Bell X-1]]) was followed by additional experimental vehicles, including the [[North American X-15|X-15]] in cooperation with the US Air Force and US Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.<ref name="AerospacewebX15"/> When the spacerace began the main objective was to get a person into space as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. This led to the choice of a small capsule spacecraft while rocket plane proposals like a modified X-15<ref name="Project1969">[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/prot7969.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica, Project 7969], retrieved 2011-10-17</ref> were turned down.<ref>[http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/history/mercury/mercury-overview.htm NASA, Project Mercury Overview], retrieved 2011-10-17</ref> Instead X-15 was used for development of techniques and equipment of value for the space missions. This included jets for changing the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits for astronauts and horizon definition for navigation.<ref name="NASAHyper">[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-052-DFRC.html NASA, X-15 Hypersonic Research Program], retrieved 2011-10-17</ref> Nearly 200 flights were made between 1959 and 1968 allowing NASA to collect data vital not only to the spacerace but also the design of the Space Shuttle.<ref name="AerospacewebX15">[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/research/x15/ Aerospaceweb, North American X-15]. Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-03.</ref> The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96&nbsp;km).<ref name="NASAHyper"/> ====Project Mercury (1959–63)==== {{Main|Project Mercury}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = Freedom 7, the first manned mission by NASA | image1 = Mercury 3.jpg | width1 = 122 | alt1 = Launch on May 5, 1961 | caption1 = Mercury-Redstone 3 launch on May 5, 1961 | image2 = Freedom 7 Diagram.jpg | width2 = 223 | alt2 = | caption2 = Flight profile: launch, apogee (117 miles<ref name="NASA-MR3">[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mercury/missions/freedom7.html NASA, Mercury-Redstone 3 (18)], retrieved 2011-10-14</ref>), reentry and landing in water }} Project Mercury started in 1958 as NASA's inheritance of the U.S. Air Force's [[Man In Space Soonest]] program objective to make the first single-astronaut flights into Earth orbit. The [[Mercury Seven|first seven astronauts]] were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space aboard ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom&nbsp;7]]'', launched by a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone booster]] on a 15-minute [[ballistics|ballistic]] (suborbital) flight.<ref name="ShepardsRide">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm|title=This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury|format=url|chapter=11-4 Shepard's Ride|chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch11-4.htm|publisher=NASA|work=Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series|first1=Loyd S.|last1=Swenson Jr.|first2=James M.|last2=Grimwood|first3=Charles C.|last3 =Alexander |editor1-first =David |editor1-last =Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009|year=1989}}</ref> [[John Glenn]] became the first American to be launched into [[orbit]] by an [[Atlas LV-3B|Atlas launch vehicle]] on February 20, 1962 aboard [[Mercury-Atlas 6|''Friendship&nbsp;7'']].<ref name="AnAmericaninOrbit">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm|title=This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury|format=url|chapter=13-4 An American in Orbit | chapterurl = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/ch13-4.htm | publisher = NASA | work = Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series | first1=Loyd S. |last1=Swenson Jr.|first2=James M.|last2=Grimwood|first3=Charles C.|last3=Alexander|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009|year=1989}}</ref> Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights were made, culminating in [[Gordon Cooper|L. Gordon Cooper]]'s 22-orbit flight ''[[Mercury-Atlas 9|Faith 7]]'', May 15–16, 1963.<ref name="NASAManned">{{cite web |publisher=NASA |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mercury/missions/manned_flights.html |title= Mercury Manned Flights Summary|accessdate=2011-10-09}}</ref> The [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) competed with Mercury in what was called ''[[space race|the Space Race]]'', with its own single-pilot spacecraft, [[Vostok programme|Vostok]]. They bested the U.S. in getting humans into space soonest, by launching cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]] into a single Earth orbit aboard in [[Vostok 1]] in April 1961, one month before Shepard's flight.<ref name="NASAGagarin">{{cite web |publisher=NASA |url =http://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/gagarin/gagarin.html |title=NASA history, Gagarin |accessdate=2011-10-09}}</ref> In August 1962, they achieved an almost four-day record flight with [[Andriyan Nikolayev]] aboard [[Vostok 3]], and also conducted a concurrent [[Vostok 4]] mission carrying [[Pavel Popovich]]. The Soviet lead, perceived by the U.S public as most acute in May 1962, motivated President [[John F. Kennedy]] to ask the Congress to commit to a program to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which effectively launched the [[Apollo program]]. ====Project Gemini (1961–66)==== [[File:Gemini 7 in orbit - GPN-2006-000035.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The first rendezvous of two spacecraft, achieved by Gemini 6 and 7]] {{Main|Project Gemini}} Based on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration flights, developing [[space rendezvous]] techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome the Soviets' lead and to support the Apollo program, adding [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA) and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] to its objectives. The first manned Gemini flight, [[Gemini 3]], was flown by [[Gus Grissom]] and [[John Young (astronaut)|John Young]] on March 23, 1965.<ref name="TheLastHurdle">{{cite book |author= Barton C. Hacker |last= Gamble |first= Chris |coauthors= James M. Grimwood |title= On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |url= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/toc.htm |archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/5nE1rKoZS |archivedate= February 1, 2010 |format= url |accessdate= July 14, 2009 |date= December 31, 2002 |publisher= NASA |isbn= 978-0-16-067157-9 |chapter= 10-1 The Last Hurdle |chapterurl= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch10-1.htm}}</ref> Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous, docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.<ref name="PlansforGemini3">{{cite book |author= Barton C. Hacker |last= Gamble |first= Chris |coauthors= James M. Grimwood |title= On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |url= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/toc.htm |archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/5nE1rKoZS |archivedate= February 1, 2010 |accessdate= July 14, 2009 |date= December 31, 2002 |publisher= NASA |isbn= 978-0-16-067157-9 |chapter= 12-5 Two Weeks in a Spacecraft |chapterurl= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch12-5.htm}}</ref><ref name="AnAlternativeTarget">{{cite book |author= Barton C. Hacker |last= Gamble |first= Chris |coauthors= James M. Grimwood |title= On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |url= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/toc.htm |archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/5nE1rKoZS |archivedate= February 1, 2010 |accessdate= July 14, 2009 |date= December 31, 2002 |publisher= NASA |isbn= 978-0-16-067157-9 |chapter= 13-3 An Alternative Target |chapterurl= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch13-3.htm}}</ref> Under the direction of Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]], the USSR competed with Gemini by converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man [[Voskhod spacecraft|Voskhod]]. They succeeded in launching two manned flights before Gemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight in 1963 and the first EVA in 1964. After this, the program was then canceled, and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer [[Sergei Korolev]] developed the [[Soyuz spacecraft]], their answer to Apollo. [[File:NASA spacecraft comparison.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Spacecraft and rocket comparison including [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]] (biggest), Gemini and Mercury. The [[Saturn IB]] and [[Mercury-Redstone]] rockets are left out]] ====Project Apollo (1961–72)==== {{Main|Apollo program}} The Apollo program was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It is estimated to have cost ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|170000000000|2005|r=2}}}} in present-day US dollars.{{Inflation-fn|US}}<ref name=Butts>{{cite web | last = Butts | first = Glenn | last2 = Linton | first2 = Kent | title = The Joint Confidence Level Paradox: A History of Denial, 2009 NASA Cost Symposium | date = April 28, 2009 | pages = 25–26 | url = http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/nexgen/Nexgen_Downloads/Butts_NASA's_Joint_Cost-Schedule_Paradox_-_A_History_of_Denial.pdf}}</ref> (In comparison, the [[Manhattan Project]] cost roughly ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|2000000000|1945|r=2}}}}, accounting for inflation.){{Inflation-fn|US}}<ref name="harv">{{cite book |last=Nichols |first=Kenneth David |authorlink=Kenneth Nichols |title=The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made, pp 34–35 |location=New York |publisher=William Morrow and Company |year= 1987|isbn=0-688-06910-X|oclc=15223648 |ref=harv }}</ref> It used the [[Saturn rocket]]s as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects.<ref name="AstroSat5">{{cite web| url = http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/saturnv.htm| title = Saturn V| publisher = Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=2011-10-13}}</ref> The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventually return to Earth. [[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Buzz Aldrin on the moon, 1969]] The second manned mission, [[Apollo 8]], brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon in December 1968.<ref name="NASAApol8">{{cite web| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-6.html| title = Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage| publisher = NASA|accessdate=2011-10-13}}</ref> Shortly before, the Soviets had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon.<ref name="Siddiqi">{{cite book|last =Siddiqi| first = Asif A. | title = The Soviet Space Race with Apollo|pages=654–656|year = 2003| publisher = Gainsville: University Press of Florida| isbn = 0-8130-2628-8 }}</ref> On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced<ref name="NasaApollo9">{{cite web| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-5.html| title = Apollo 9: Earth Orbital trials| publisher = NASA|accessdate=2011-10-13}}</ref><ref name="NASAApollo10">{{cite web| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-7.html| title = Apollo 10: The Dress Rehearsal| publisher = NASA |accessdate=2011-10-13}}</ref> and then finally the Moon landing was made on the [[Apollo 11]] mission in July 1969.<ref name="NasaApollo11">{{cite web| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch14-4.html| title = The First Landing| publisher = NASA|accessdate=2011-10-13}}</ref> The first [[List of Apollo astronauts|person to stand on the Moon]] was [[Neil Armstrong]], who was followed by [[Buzz Aldrin]] while [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and {{convert|381.7|kg|lb}} of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included [[soil mechanics]], [[meteoroid]]s, [[seismology]], [[Heat transfer|heat flow]], [[Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment|lunar ranging]], [[magnetic field]]s, and [[solar wind]].<ref>{{cite book| author = Andrew Chaikin| last = Chaikin| first = Andrew| title = A Man on the Moon| url = http://books.google.com/?id=CuXqumwrH6gC| date = March 16, 1998| publisher = Penguin Books| location = New York| isbn = 978-0-14-027201-7 }}</ref> The Moon landing marked the end of the space race and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind<ref>[http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/324100.html The Phrase Finder:]''...a giant leap for mankind'', retrieved 2011-10-01</ref> when he stepped down on the Moon. [[Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|[[Earthrise]], as seen from Apollo&nbsp;8, December 24, 1968. It has been called one of the most influential photos ever taken<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/science/moon/earthrise.htm</ref>]] Apollo set major [[List of space exploration milestones, 1957-1969|milestones]] in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond [[low Earth orbit]], and landing humans on another [[celestial body]].<ref>[http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions]. NASA, 1999.</ref> [[Apollo 8]] was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while [[Apollo 17]] marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond [[low Earth orbit]]. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including [[avionics]], telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the [[National Air and Space Museum|Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums]]. ====Skylab (1965–79)==== [[File:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Skylab space station, 1974]] {{Main|Skylab}} Skylab was the United States' first and only independently built [[space station]].<ref name="skylabFirst">{{Cite book|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770020211_1977020211.pdf |title= Skylab Our First Space Station—NASA report |format=PDF |id=NASA-SP-400 |year=1977 |publisher=NASA |editor-first=Leland F. |editor-last=Belew |accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent [[Saturn IB]] upper stage, the {{convert|169950|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973 atop the first two stages of a [[Saturn V]], into a {{convert|235|nmi|km|adj=on}} orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974.<ref name="skylabFirst"/> It included a laboratory for studying the effects of [[microgravity environment|microgravity]], and a [[Apollo Telescope Mount|solar observatory]].<ref name="skylabFirst"/> NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979.<ref name="livingandworking">Benson, Charles Dunlap and William David Compton. ''[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab]''. NASA publication SP-4208.</ref> To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the Skylab. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was {{convert|11290|ft3|m3|sp=us}}, which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Command Module (CM)|Apollo Command Module]].<ref name="livingandworking"/> ====Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1972-75)==== [[File:Portrait of ASTP crews.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Apollo-Soyuz crews with models of spacecraft, 1975]] {{Main|Apollo-Soyuz Test Project}} On May 24, 1972, US President [[Richard M. Nixon]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Gatland | first = Kenneth | title = Manned Spacecraft, Second Revision | publisher = Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. | year = 1976 | location = New York | page = 247 | isbn = 0-02-542820-9}}</ref> This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus [[Apollo Command/Service Module]] with a [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] spacecraft. The mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the [[Space Shuttle]] in April 1981.<ref name="ASTP">{{cite web|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/astp/astp.html|title=The Apollo Soyuz Test Project|first=Kay|last=Grinter|date=April 23, 2003|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program<ref name="Shuttle-MIR">[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/shuttle-mir/history/h-t-long.htm NASA, Shuttle-MIR history], retrieved 2011-10-15</ref> and the International Space Station. ====Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)==== {{Main|Space Shuttle program}} {{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | header = | image1 = Shuttle-a.jpg | width1 = 112 | alt1 = Discovery liftoff | caption1 = Discovery liftoff, 2008 | image2 = Space shuttle mission profile.jpg | width2 = 237 | alt2 = Space Shuttle mission profile | caption2 = Mission profile. Left: launch, top: orbit (cargo bay open), right: reentry and landing }} The [[Space Shuttle]] became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']], did so on April 12, 1981,<ref name="Odyssey">{{cite book| author = Serge Brunier| last = Bernier| first = Serge| title = Space Odyssey: The First Forty Years of Space Exploration| url = http://books.google.com/?id=TDfk-kylpPgC| date = May 27, 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-81356-3 }}</ref> the 20th anniversary of the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin.<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok1.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica, Vostok 1], retrieved 2011-10-18</ref> Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid fuel launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643&nbsp;km (115–400 [[statute mile|miles]])<ref name="ShuttleBas">[http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_STS.html NASA, Shuttle Basics], retrieved 2011-10-18</ref> and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400&nbsp;kg (54,000&nbsp;lb).<ref name="AstroShutt">[http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/shuttle.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica, Shuttle], retrieved 2011-10-18</ref> Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.<ref name="ShuttleBas"/> On 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried [[Spacelab]], designed in cooperation with the [[European Space Agency|ESA]]. Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an [[airlock]].<ref name="AstroSpacelab">[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/spacelab.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica, Spacelab]. Retrieved October 20, 2011</ref> Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble space telescope 1990 and 1993<ref name="AstroHST">[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/hst.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica, HST]. Retrieved October 20, 2011</ref> In 1995 Russian-American interaction resumed with the [[Shuttle-Mir Program|Shuttle-Mir]] missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as the two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster]]. The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Challenger]]'' in 1986, and ''Columbia'' in 2003.<ref name="delays1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/2008-01-07-nasawoes_N.htm |title=Shuttle delays endanger space station |accessdate=July 15, 2009 |work=USA Today |year=2007 |first=Traci|last=Watson|date=January 8, 2008}}</ref> While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'']] from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the [[STS-107|second loss]].<ref name="delays1"/> NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://khitschicago.radio.com/2011/07/08/nasas-last-space-shuttle-flight-lifts-off-from-cape-canaveral/|title=NASA's Last Space Shuttle Flight Lifts Off From Cape Canaveral|date=July 8, 2011|publisher=KHITS Chicago}}</ref> ====International Space Station (1998–present)==== {{Main|International Space Station}} [[File:S134e010665 - rotated and darkend.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|The International Space Station, 2011]] The International Space Station (ISS) combines the Japanese [[Japanese Experiment Module|Kibō]] laboratory with three space station projects, the Soviet/Russian [[Mir-2]], the American [[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]], and the European [[Columbus (spacecraft)|Columbus]].<ref name="ISSBook">{{cite book|isbn=978-0-387-78144-0|date=17 June 2008|publisher=Springer-Praxis|author=John E. Catchpole|title=The International Space Station: Building for the Future}}</ref> Budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in the early 1990s which is managed by the five participating space agencies, NASA, the Russian [[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]], the Japanese [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]], the European [[European Space Agency|ESA]], and the Canadian [[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]].<ref name="PartStates">{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/partstates.html|title=Human Spaceflight and Exploration—European Participating States|accessdate=17 January 2009|publisher=European Space Agency (ESA)|year=2009}}</ref><ref name="ISSRG">{{cite book|author=Gary Kitmacher|title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station| publisher =[[Apogee Books]]|location=Canada|year=2006|isbn=978-1-894959-34-6|issn=1496-6921|pages=71–80}}</ref> The station consists of pressurized modules, external [[Integrated Truss Structure|trusses]], [[solar arrays]] and other components, which have been launched by Russian [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]] and [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.<ref name="ISSBook"/> It is [[Assembly of the International Space Station|currently being assembled]] in [[Low Earth Orbit]]. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the [[US Orbital Segment]] occurred in 2011 and the completion of the [[Russian Orbital Segment]] is expected by 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/hearings/101211_Gerstenmaier.pdf|title=Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier Associate Administrator for HEO NASA before the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science, Space and Technology U. S. House of Representatives|last=Gerstenmaier|first=William|date=2011-10-12|publisher=United States House of Representatives|accessdate=31 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ato.ru/content/building-sand|title=The Russian ISS segment is to be completed by 2016|coauthors=Igor Afanasev and Dmitrii Vorontsov|date=11 January2012|publisher=Air Transport Observer|accessdate=14 October 2012}}</ref> The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements<ref name="ESA-IGA">{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/users/index.cfm?act=default.page&level=11&page=1980|title=ISS Intergovernmental Agreement|publisher=European Space Agency (ESA)|accessdate=19 April 2009|date=19 April 2009}}</ref> which divide the station into two areas and allow [[Russian Federation|Russia]] to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya),<ref name="RSA-MOU">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html|title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station|publisher=NASA|accessdate=19 April 2009|date=29 January 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html|title=Russian Segment: Enerprise|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=15 October 2008|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb|accessdate=4 August 2012}}</ref> with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.<ref name="ESA-IGA"/> [[File:STS-131 and Expedition 23 Group Portrait.jpg|thumb|left|The [[STS-131]] (light blue) and [[Expedition 23]] (dark blue) crew members in April 2010.]] Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as [[List of International Space Station expeditions|ISS Expeditions]], expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/562641main_FS-2011-ISS%20intro.pdf|title=ISS Fact sheet: FS-2011-06-009-JSC|year=2011|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> The initial expedition crew size was three, it was temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster; since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/423071main_mcb_joint_stmt_020110.pdf|title=MCB Joint Statement Representing Common Views on the Future of the ISS|date=3 February 2010|publisher=International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board|accessdate=16 August 2012}}</ref> Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacenews.com/civil/120620-nasa-commercial-crew-grow-iss-pop.html|title= Wed, 20 June, 2012 NASA Banking on Commercial Crew To Grow ISS Population|last=Leone|first=Dan|date=20 June 2012|publisher=Space News|accessdate=1 September 2012}}</ref> The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past {{Ageand|2000|11|02}}, having exceeded the previous record held by [[Mir]]; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from [[List of International Space Station visitors|15 different nations]].<ref name="10th">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/10th_anniversary.html|title=Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station|publisher=NASA|date=17 November 2008|accessdate=6 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-11/happy-anniversary-international-space-station|title=The International Space Station Has Been Continuously Inhabited for Ten Years Today|last=Boyle|first=Rebecca |date=11 November 2010|publisher=Popular Science|accessdate=1 September 2012}}</ref> The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, {{As of|2012|lc=yes}}, is the largest artificial satellite in [[Earth]] orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.<ref name="shuttlepresskit">[http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/ISS_OVR/index.htm International Space Station], Retrieved October 20, 2011</ref> The [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year long missions and than returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress spacecraft]] which has done so since 2000, the European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) since 2009 and the American [[Dragon (spacecraft)|Dragon spacecraft]] since 2012. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the [[International Space Station]] exclusively aboard the Soyuz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/13664-nasa-future-space-exploration-progress.html|title=U.S. Human Spaceflight Program Still Strong, NASA Chief Says|last=Chow|first=Denise|date=17 November 2011|publisher=Space.com|accessdate=2 July 2012}}</ref> The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=8112821&page=1#.UElhfKNmNlA|title=Space Shuttle, Station Dock: 13 Astronauts Together|last=Potter|first=Ned|date=17 July 2009|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=7 September 2012}}</ref> The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020 but may be extended until 2028 or possibly beyond that.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacenews.com/policy/120329-mikulski-questions-commercial-priority.html|title=Sen. Mikulski Questions NASA Commercial Crew Priority|last=Leone|first=Dan|date=29 March 2012|publisher=Space News|accessdate=30 June 2012}}</ref> =====Commercial Resupply Services (2006-present)===== {{Main|Commercial Resupply Services}} {{double image|right|COTS2 Dragon is berthed.jpg|150|Cygnus standard - cropped.png|134|The Dragon is seen being berthed to the ISS in May 2012|Artist's rendering of the Standard variant of Cygnus|}} The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=NASA |date=2006-08-18 |title=NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06295_COTS_phase_1.html |accessdate=2006-11-21}}</ref> The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed the milestone.<ref name=nasaRendezvous2010-2>{{cite web |title=Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/475795main_rendezvous_v4n3.pdf |work=Rendezvous |publisher=NASA |accessdate= February 14, 2011 |pages=10–17 |year=2010 |quote="Just as in the COTS projects, in the CCDev project we have fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones," Thorn said. "There’s no extra money invested by NASA if the projects cost more than projected."}}</ref> Private companies were also required to have some "skin in the game" which refers raising an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/491296main_JSCSymposium_McAlister%20Overview.pdf|title=The Case for Commercial Crew|last=McAlister|first=Phil|date=October 2010|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2 July 2012}}</ref> On 23 December 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to [[SpaceX]] and [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]].<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/dec/HQ_C08-069_ISS_Resupply.html "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts"]. NASA, December 23, 2008.</ref> SpaceX uses its [[Falcon 9]] rocket and [[Dragon (spacecraft)|Dragon spacecraft]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20081223 |title=Space Exploration Technologies Corporation – Press |publisher=Spacex.com |accessdate=July 17, 2009 }}</ref> Orbital Sciences will use its [[Antares (rocket)|Antares]] rocket and [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus spacecraft]]. The [[Dragon C2+|first Dragon resupply mission]] occurred in May 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spaceflightnow.com/falcon9/003/120602crs/|title=NASA expects quick start to SpaceX cargo contract|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=2 June 2012|publisher=SpaceFlightNow|accessdate=30 June 2012}}</ref> The [[Cygnus 1|first Cygnus resupply mission]] is expected to occur in early 2013.<ref name=spaceflightnow>{{cite web |url= http://spaceflightnow.com/tracking/index.html|title= Worldwide launch schedule|accessdate= 2012-10-159|work= spaceflightnow.com}}</ref> The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] and the Japanese [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJNNiYPyAeQ|title=SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule|date=22 May 2012|publisher=NASA|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> =====Commercial Crew Program (2010–present)===== {{Main|Commercial Crew Development}} The [[Commercial Crew Development]] (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth.<ref name="Berger">{{cite web|url=http://www.spacenews.com/venture_space/100201-biggest-ccdev-award-goes-sierra-nevada.html|title=Biggest CCDev Award Goes to Sierra Nevada|last=Berger|first=Brian|date=2011-02-01|publisher=Imaginova Corp.|accessdate=13 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="Berger"/> It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by [[Bigelow Aerospace]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/AW_10_01_2012_p45-498001.xml&p=2|title=Boeing Gets Most Money With Smallest Investment|last=Morring|first=Frank|date=10 October 2012|publisher=Aviation Week|accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> Like COTS, CCDev is also a fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.<ref name="nasaRendezvous2010-2" /> In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50&nbsp;million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270&nbsp;million was divided among four companies.<ref name=ft20110418>Dean, James. [http://web.archive.org/web/20110511143351/http://space.flatoday.net/2011/04/nasa-awards-270-million-for-commercial.html "NASA awards $270 million for commercial crew efforts"]. space.com, April 18, 2011.</ref> In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems.<ref name=August2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2012/release-20120803.html |title= NASA Announces Next Steps in Effort to Launch Americans from U.S. Soil |date= August 3, 2012 |publisher=NASA |accessdate= August 3, 2012}}</ref> This phase of the CCDev program is expected to last from 3 June 2012 to 31 May 2014.<ref name=August2012/> The winners of this latest round were SpaceX's [[Dragon spacecraft|Dragon]] planned to be launched on a [[Falcon 9]], Boeing's [[CST-100]] planned to be launched on an [[Atlas V]] and Sierra Nevada's [[Dream Chaser]], which is also planned to be launched on an Atlas V.<ref>[http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/awst/2011/04/25/AW_04_25_2011_p24-313867.xml&headline=Five%20Vehicles%20Vie%20To%20Succeed%20Space%20Shuttle Five Vehicles Vie For Future Of U.S. Human Spaceflight<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <!--All three of the vehicles are designed to be able to transport up to seven astronauts.--> NASA will most likely only choose one provider for the Commercial Crew program, this vehicle is expected by NASA to become operational around 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pc2MM_Ahsd4&t=69m0s|title=Recent Developments in NASA’s Commercial Crew Acquisition Strategy|date=14 September 2012|publisher=United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology|accessdate=23 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1204/24commercialcrew/|title=Congress wary of fully funding commercial crew|date=2012-04-24|publisher=Spaceflightnow|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref> <center> <gallery perrow="5"> File:COTS2Dragon.6.jpg|The unmanned variant of Dragon is seen approaching the ISS File:CST-100.jpg|Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit File:Dream Chaser drop tests.jpg|Dream Chaser atmospheric test article </gallery> </center> ====Unnamed BLEO program (2010–present)==== [[File:Art of SLS launch.jpg|thumb|upright|Artist's rendering of the 70 mt variant of SLS launching Orion]] For missions beyond [[low Earth orbit]] (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the [[Space Launch System]] (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft, [[Orion spacecraft|Orion]]. In February 2010, President [[Barack Obama]]'s administration proposed eliminating public funds for the [[Constellation program]] and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.<ref name=Achenbach>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/31/AR2010013101058.html |title=NASA budget for 2011 eliminates funds for manned lunar missions |work=Washington Post |date= February 1, 2010 |accessdate=February 1, 2010 | first=Joel |last=Achenbach}}</ref> During speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed the design selection of the new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) that would replace the formerly planned [[Ares V]] should be delayed until 2015.<ref name=speech>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/news/media/trans/obama_ksc_trans.html|title=President Barack Obama on Space Exploration in the 21st Century|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Office of the Press Secretary|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> He also proposed that the United States should send a crew to an asteroid in the 2020s and send a crew to Mars orbit in the mid-2030s.<ref name=speech/> The [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] drafted the [[NASA Authorization Act of 2010]] and President Obama signed it into law on October 11 of that year.<ref name=nasa2010/> The authorization act officially canceled the Constellation program.<ref name=nasa2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.universetoday.com/75522/president-signs-nasa-2010-authorization-act/Universe |title=Today – President Signs NASA 2010 Authorization Act |publisher=Universetoday.com |accessdate=November 20, 2010}}</ref> [[File:Orion spacecraft - expanded (2009 revision).jpg|thumb|left|180px|Expanded view of the Orion spacecraft]] The Authorization Act required a new HLV design to be chosen within 90 days of its passing and for the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacenews.com/policy/110331-obama-administration-pushing-back-congressionally-mandated-rocket.html|title=Holdren: NASA Law Doesn’t Square with Budgetary Reality|last=Svitak|first=Amy|date=31 March 2011|publisher=Space News|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> The authorization act called this new HLV the Space Launch System. The authorization act also required a beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft to be developed, the [[Orion spacecraft]], which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this role.<ref name=authorizationact/> The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sls1.html|title=NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System|date=2011-09-14|publisher=NASA|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref> The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 mt into [[low-Earth orbit|LEO]], it is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130 mt.<ref name=authorizationact>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c111:3:./temp/~c111MS7qB3:: S.3729 – National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2010]</ref><ref name=schedule/> [[Exploration Flight Test 1|Exploration Flight Test-1]] (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, is planned to be launched in 2014 on a [[Delta IV Heavy]] rocket.<ref name=schedule>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/02/acronyms-ascent-sls-managers-create-developmental-milestone-roadmap/|title=Acronyms to Ascent – SLS managers create development milestone roadmap|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=2012-02-23|publisher=NASA|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> [[Exploration Mission 1|Exploration Mission-1]] (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a [[circumlunar trajectory]], which is planned for 2017.<ref name=schedule/> The first manned flight of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2) is to launch between 2019 and 2021; it is a 10-14 day mission planned to place a crew of four into [[Lunar orbit]].<ref name=schedule/> As of March 2012, the destination for EM-3 and the intermediate focus for this new program is still in-flux.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/03/nac-select-human-exploration-destination-asap/|title=NASA Advisory Council: Select a Human Exploration Destination ASAP|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=2012-03-26|publisher=NasaSpaceflight (not affiliated with NASA)|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref> ===Unmanned programs=== [[File:Catseyeandmore.jpg|thumb|Various nebula observed from a NASA space telescope]] {{Main|Unmanned NASA missions}} More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system.<ref name="NASAHisStat">{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats/sect%20B/Launch%20Hist.pdf |title=Launch History (Cumulative) |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA.<ref name="NASAHis6">{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4217/ch6.htm |title=NASA Experimental Communications Satellites, 1958–1995 |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther. The first US unmanned satellite was [[Explorer 1]], which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early space race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the [[solar wind]], among other aspects.<ref name="NASAExp">{{cite web|url=http://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/ |title=NASA, Explorers program|accessdate=September 20, 2011|publisher=NASA }}</ref> A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.<ref>[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-31/mission-sts-31.html NASA mission STS-31 (35)] {{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/611f3K2LB|date =August 18, 2011}}</ref> The [[inner Solar System]] has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The first was [[Mariner program|Mariner]] in the 1960s and 70s, which made multiple visits to [[Venus]] and [[Mars]] and one to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby ([[Mariner 2]]), to take the first pictures from another planet ([[Mariner 4]]), the first planetary orbiter ([[Mariner 9]]), and the first to make a [[gravity assist]] maneuver ([[Mariner 10]]). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.<ref name="JPL">{{cite web|url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf4-1.php |title=JPL, Chapter 4. Interplanetary Trajectories |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> The first successful landing on Mars was made by [[Viking 1]] in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by [[Mars Pathfinder]].<ref name="PlanetSocMars">{{cite web|url=http://planetary.org/explore/topics/mars/missions.html |title=Missions to Mars |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher= The Planet Society}}</ref> [[File:Uranus2.jpg|thumb|Uranus by ''[[Voyager 2]]'', 1986]] Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by [[Pioneer 10]] in 1973. More than 20 years later ''[[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]'' sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet.<ref name="PlanetSocJup">{{cite web|url=http://planetary.org/explore/topics/jupiter/missions.html |title=Missions to Jupiter |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=The Planet Society }}</ref> [[Pioneer 11]] became the first spacecraft to visit [[Saturn]] in 1979, with [[Voyager 2]] making the first (and so far only) visits to [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983.<ref name="WikiAns">{{cite web|url=http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_was_the_first_spacecraft_to_leave_your_solar_system |title=What was the first spacecraft to leave the solar system |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=Wikianswers}}</ref> For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]].<ref name="JPLVoyager">{{cite web|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/fastfacts.html |title=JPL Voyager |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=JPL }}</ref> Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.<ref name="NASAPioneer10">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2003/03_25HQ.html |title=Pioneer 10 spacecraft send last signal |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref><ref name="JPLGolden">{{cite web|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/goldenrec.html |title=The golden record |accessdate=September 30, 2011|publisher=JPL }}</ref> A problem with deep space travel is communication. For instance, it takes about 3 hours at present for a radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft at a point more than halfway to Pluto.<ref name="HeavensAbove">{{cite web|url=http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/mission/whereis_nh.php |title=New Horizon |accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=JHU/APL }}</ref> Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.<ref name="NASAVoyagesBeyond">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/whyweexplore/Why_We_25.html |title=Voyages Beyond the Solar System: The Voyager Interstellar Mission|accessdate=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> On November 26, 2011, NASA's [[Mars Science Laboratory]] mission was successfully launched for Mars. ''[[Curiosity rover|Curiosity]]'' successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.<ref name="NASA-MSL">{{cite web |author=NASA Staff |title=Mars Science Laboratory |url=http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ |publisher=NASA |date=November 26, 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-26 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-MSL">{{cite web |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=NASA Launches Super-Size Rover to Mars: 'Go, Go!' |url=http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2011/11/26/science/AP-US-SCI-Mars-Rover.html |work=New York Times |date=November 26, 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-26 }}</ref><ref name="New York Times">{{cite web |author=Kenneth Chang |title=Curiosity Rover Lands Safely on Mars |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/science/space/curiosity-rover-lands-safely-on-mars.html?hp |work=The New York Times |date=August 6, 2012 |accessdate=2012-08-06}}</ref> ===Recent and planned activities=== [[File:Orion Ground Test Article (GTA).jpg|thumb|left|The Orion spacecraft is intended to be used for beyond low Earth orbit missions, shown here is the ground test article]] [[File:0003ML0000125000E1 DXXX.jpg|thumb|[[Curiosity rover|''Curiosity'']]'s wheel on [[Mars]], 2012]] NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are [[MESSENGER]] for [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], New Horizons (for Jupiter, [[Pluto]], and beyond), and [[Dawn (spacecraft)|Dawn]] for the [[asteroid belt]]. NASA continued to support ''[[in situ]]'' exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and [[Gas Giant]] orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997–), and Juno (2011–). The [[New Horizons]] mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and is currently en route for a [[Pluto]] flyby in 2015. The probe received a [[gravity assist]] from [[Jupiter]] in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the [[MAVEN (spacecraft)|MAVEN spacecraft]] as part of the [[Mars Scout Program]] to study the [[atmosphere of Mars]].<ref name="MAVEN">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/maven_20080915.html|title=NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |first=Jim|last=Wilson |date=September 15, 2008 |accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a [[Lunar outpost (NASA)|permanent moon base]].<ref name="moon2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/164021main_lunar_architecture.pdf|title=GLOBAL EXPLORATION STRATEGY AND LUNAR ARCHITECTURE|author=NASA Office of Public Affairs|publisher=NASA|date=December 4, 2006|format=PDF|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and [[in-situ resource utilization]]. However in 2009, the [[Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee|Augustine Committee]] found the program to be on a "unsustainable trajectory."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/396093main_HSF_Cmte_FinalReport.pdf|title=Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee|date=October 22, 2009|publisher=Office of Science and Technology Policy|accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> In 2010, President [[Barack Obama]] halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the [[International Space Station]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article7011322.ece|work=The Times|location=London|title=Nasa reduced to pipe dreams as Obama cancels Moon flights|first=Jacqui|last=Goddard|date=February 2, 2010|accessdate=May 19, 2010}}</ref> In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the [[Space Launch System]] program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the [[Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle]] and other elements towards the [[Moon]], [[Near-Earth object#Near-Earth_asteroids|near-Earth asteroids]], and one day [[Mars]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sls1.html|title=NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System|date=September 14, 2011|publisher=NASA|accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> The Orion MPCV is planned for an unmanned test launch on a [[Delta IV Heavy]] rocket around late 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/11/nasa-approve-eft-1-flight-orion-pushes-2013-orbital-debut/|title=NASA managers approve EFT-1 flight as Orion pushes for orbital debut|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=November 6, 2011|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com (Not affiliated with NASA)|accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> [[File:Cheering-full-br2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Celebration erupts at NASA with the successful landing of Curiosity on Mars]] On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover ''[[Curiosity rover|Curiosity]]'' on Mars. On August 27, 2012, Administrator Charlie Bolden made the first recorded voice broadcast from the surface Mars using ''Curiosity''. <blockquote style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;"> Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking to you via the broadcast capabilities of the Curiosity Rover, which is now on the surface of Mars. Since the beginning of time, humankind’s curiosity has led us to constantly seek new life…new possibilities just beyond the horizon. I want to congratulate the men and women of our NASA family as well as our commercial and government partners around the world, for taking us a step beyond to Mars. This is an extraordinary achievement. Landing a rover on Mars is not easy – others have tried – only America has fully succeeded. The investment we are making…the knowledge we hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about the possibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bring benefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and explorers, as it prepares the way for a human mission in the not too distant future. Thank you.<ref>[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/news/whatsnew/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowNews&NewsID=1325 08.27.2012 First Recorded Voice from Mars]</ref> </blockquote> ==Scientific research== {{for|technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA|NASA spin-off technologies}} [[File:Lunar basalt 70017.jpg|thumb|A [[Lunar basalt 70017|Moon rock]] returned by Apollo 17 crew]] ===Medicine in space=== {{main|Space medicine}} A variety of large-scale medical studies are being conducted in space by the [[National Space Biomedical Research Institute]] (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] Study, in which astronauts (including former ISS Commanders [[Leroy Chiao]] and [[Gennady Padalka]]) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. Usually there is no physician on board the [[International Space Station]], and diagnosis of medical conditions is challenging. Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including [[decompression sickness]], barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, orthostatic intolerance due to volume loss, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. [[Ultrasound]] offers a unique opportunity to monitor these conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in populations such as medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html |title=NASA—Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM) |publisher=NASA |date=July 31, 2010 |accessdate=August 13, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rao |first1=S |last2=Van Holsbeeck |first2=L|last3=Musial|first3=JL|last4=Parker|first4=A|last5=Bouffard|first5=JA|last6=Bridge|first6=P|last7=Jackson|first7=M|last8=Dulchavsky|first8=SA|title=A pilot study of comprehensive ultrasound education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine: a pioneer year review|journal=Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine|volume=27|issue=5|pages=745–9|year=2008|pmid=18424650}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fincke|first1=E. M.|last2=Padalka|first2=G.|last3=Lee|first3=D.|last4=Van Holsbeeck|first4=M.|last5=Sargsyan|first5=A. E.|last6=Hamilton|first6=D. R.|last7=Martin|first7=D.|last8=Melton|first8=S. L.|last9=McFarlin|first9=K.|title=Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station |journal=Radiology |volume=234|pages=319–22|year=2005|doi=10.1148/radiol.2342041680|pmid=15533948|issue=2}}</ref> ===Ozone depletion=== In 1975, NASA was directed by legislation to research and monitor the upper atmosphere. This led to Upper Atmosphere Research Program and later the [[Earth Observing System]] (EOS) satellites in the 1990s to monitor [[ozone depletion]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/monograph38.pdf |title= NASA and the Environment: The Case of Ozone Depletion |publisher= NASA |date= May 2005 |author= W. Henry Lambright |accessdate=June 28, 2012}}</ref> The first comprehensive worldwide measurements were obtained in 1978 with the Nimbus 7 satellite and NASA scientists at the [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://toms.gsfc.nasa.gov/eptoms/dataqual/ozone.html |title=Ozone Hole Monitoring |publisher=NASA |year=2008 |author=Dr. Richard McPeters |accessdate=May 1, 2008}}</ref> ===Salt evaporation and energy management=== In one of the nation's largest restoration projects, NASA technology helps state and federal government reclaim {{convert|15100|acre|km2}} of salt evaporation ponds in South San Francisco Bay. Satellite sensors are used by scientists to study the effect of salt evaporation on local ecology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/earth-03t.html|title=NASA Helps Reclaim 15,100&nbsp;Acres Of San Francisco Bay Salt Ponds|accessdate=May 1, 2008|publisher=Space Daily|year=2003|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110523133155/http://www.spacedaily.com/news/earth-03t.html |archivedate = May 23, 2011|deadurl=yes}}</ref> NASA has started Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation Program as an agency-wide program directed to prevent pollution and reduce energy and water utilization. It helps to ensure that NASA meets its federal stewardship responsibilities for the environment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oim.hq.nasa.gov/oia/emd/energy.html|title=Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation|accessdate=May 1, 2008|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=Tina Norwood|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080117130103/http://oim.hq.nasa.gov/oia/emd/energy.html |archivedate = January 17, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref> ===Earth Science=== Understanding of natural and human-induced changes on the global environment is the main objective of NASA's [[Earth Science]]. NASA currently has more than a dozen Earth science spacecraft/instruments in orbit studying all aspects of the Earth system (oceans, land, atmosphere, [[biosphere]], [[cryosphere]]), with several more planned for launch in the next few years.<ref name="Climate Change: NASA’s Role">{{cite news| title = Taking a global perspective on Earth's climate|publisher=Global Climate Change: NASA's Eyes on the Earth| url = http://climate.nasa.gov/NasaRole/|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110724230304/http://climate.nasa.gov/NasaRole/ |archivedate = July 24, 2011|deadurl=yes}}</ref> NASA is working in cooperation with [[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] (NREL). The goal is to produce worldwide solar resource maps with great local detail.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/33792.pdf|title=Progress on Updating the 1961–1990 National Solar Radiation Database|accessdate=May 1, 2008|publisher=NREL|year=2003|author=D. Renné, S. Wilcox, B. Marion, R. George, D. Myers, T. Stoffel, R. Perez, P. Stackhouse, Jr.}}</ref> NASA was also one of the main participants in the evaluation innovative technologies for the clean up of the sources for [[dense non-aqueous phase liquids]] (DNAPLs). On April 6, 1999, the agency signed The [[Memorandum of Agreement]] (MOA) along with the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]], [[United States Department of Energy|DOE]], and [[USAF]] authorizing all the above organizations to conduct necessary tests at the John F. Kennedy Space center. The main purpose was to evaluate two innovative in-situ remediation technologies, thermal removal and oxidation destruction of DNAPLs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/b1ab9f485b098972852562e7004dc686/137b08f43cc2197e8525674e005f76fd?OpenDocument|title=EPA, DOE, NASA AND USAF Evaluate Innovative Technologies|accessdate=April 28, 2008|publisher=EPA|year=1999|author=EPA}}</ref> National Space Agency made a partnership with Military Services and [[Defense Contract Management Agency]] named the “Joint Group on Pollution Prevention”. The group is working on reduction or elimination of hazardous materials or processes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jgpp.com/JGPP_Charter_02_2005-complete.pdf|title=Joint Group on Pollution Prevention|accessdate=May 1, 2008|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=Benjamin S. Griffin, Gregory S. Martin, Keith W. Lippert, J.D.MacCarthy, Eugene G. Payne, Jr.}}</ref> On May 8, 2003, [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use [[landfill gas]] to produce energy at one of its facilities—the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], Greenbelt, Maryland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TM-2004-212069.pdf|title=Johnson Space Center's Role in a Sustainable Future|accessdate=April 28, 2008|publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=Michael K. Ewert}}</ref> ==Leadership== {{Main|List of NASA Administrators}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | header = | width = 110 | image1 = Charles F. Bolden, Jr.jpg | alt1 = [[Charles F. Bolden, Jr.]], Administrator of NASA | caption1 = [[Charles F. Bolden, Jr.]], Administrator | image2 = Lori Garver official portrait.jpg | alt2 = [[Lori Garver]], Deputy Administrator of NASA | caption2 = [[Lori Garver]], Deputy Administrator }} [[Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration|The administrator]] is the highest-ranking NASA official and serves as the senior space science adviser to the President of the United States. The administration is located at [[NASA Headquarters]] in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction to the agency.<ref name="HQ">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/hq/home/index.html|title=Welcome to NASA Headquarters|first=Mary|last=Shouse|date=July 9, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> The first Administrator was Dr. [[T. Keith Glennan]]; during his term he brought together the disparate projects in space development research in the US.<ref name="glennan_biography">{{cite web | url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Biographies/glennan.html | title=T. Keith Glennan biography | publisher=NASA | date=August 4, 2006 | accessdate=2008-07-05}}</ref> Some administrators like [[Richard H. Truly]] (administrator 1989–1992) have been astronauts themselves. Among others he piloted Space Shuttle Columbia in 1981 on its second flight and later supervised the rebuilding of the shuttle program after the disaster of Challenger in 1986<ref name= "astronautscholar">[http://www.astronautscholarship.org/truly.html Astronaut Scholarship Foundation, Richard H. Truly], retrieved 2011-10-19</ref> On May 24, 2009, President Obama announced the nomination of [[Charles F. Bolden, Jr.|Charles Bolden]] as NASA administrator, and [[Lori Garver]] as deputy administrator.<ref>{{Cite press release|title=President Obama Announces More Key Administration Posts|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/President-Obama-Announces-More-Key-Administration-Posts-7-6-09/|publisher=[[White House Press Secretary|Office of the Press Secretary]]|date=May 23, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Bolden was confirmed by the US Senate on July 15, 2009 as the twelfth administrator of NASA. Lori Garver was confirmed as NASA's deputy administrator.<ref name="confirmed">{{Cite press release|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2009/jul/HQ_09-165_Bolden_and_Garver.html|title=Bolden and Garver Confirmed by U.S. Senate|date=July 15, 2009|first=Michael|last=Cabbage|publisher=NASA|accessdate=July 16, 2009}}</ref> ==Facilities== {{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | header = | image1 = Site du JPL en Californie.jpg | width1 = 170 | alt1 = [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] complex in Pasadena, California | caption1 = [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] complex in Pasadena, California | image2 = Vehicle-Assembly-Building-July-6-2005.jpg | width2 = 173 | alt2 = [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] and [[Launch Control Center]] at [[Kennedy Space Center]] | caption2 = Vehicle Assembly and Launch Control at [[Kennedy Space Center]] }} {{Main|NASA facilities}} NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA also operates a short-line [[NASA Railroad|railroad at the Kennedy Space Center]] and own special aircraft for instance two [[commons:File:Enterprise-Boeing 747.jpg|Boeing 747 which were used for transport]] of the Space Shuttle orbiter. John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Another major facility is [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed.<ref name="NASAMSFC_Fact_sheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/pdf/159998main_MSFC_Fact_sheet.pdf |title=MSFC_Fact_sheet |accessdate= October 1, 2011|publisher=NASA }}</ref> The [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]], mentioned above, was together with [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency|ABMA]] one of the agencies behind [[Explorer 1]], the first American space mission. ==Budget== [[File:NASA-budget-federal.jpg|thumb|NASA's budget 1962–2014 as % of federal budget peaking 1966]] {{Main|Budget of NASA}} NASA's budget has generally been approximately 1% of the federal budget from the early 1970s on, but briefly peaked to approximately 3.3% in 1966 during the Apollo program. Recent public perception of the NASA budget has been shown to be significantly different from reality; a 1997 poll indicated that Americans responded on average that 20% of the federal budget went to NASA.<ref name="perception of US Human Spaceflight">{{cite web |last= Launius |first= Roger D. |title= Public opinion polls and perceptions of US human spaceflight |url= http://si.academia.edu/RogerLaunius/Papers/93299/_Public_Opinion_Polls_and_Perceptions_of_US_Human_Spaceflight_ |publisher=Division of Space History, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution}}</ref> The percentage of federal budget that NASA has been allocated has been steadily dropping since the Apollo program and as of 2012 the NASA budget is estimated to be 0.48% of the federal budget.<ref name=B2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/622643main_FY%2013%20Budget%20Presentation.pdf|title=Fiscal Year 2013 Budget Estimates|publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2013}}</ref> In a March 2012 meeting of the [[United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation|United States Senate Science Committee]], [[Neil deGrasse Tyson]] testified that "Right now, NASA’s annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform the country from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow."<ref name= "tysontranscript">{{cite web|url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2012/03/07/past-present-and-future-of-nasa-us-senate-testimony |title=Past, Present, and Future of NASA - U.S. Senate Testimony|publisher=Hayden Planetarium |accessdate=04 Dec 2012 |date=07 Mar 2012}}</ref><ref name= "tysontranscript_video">{{cite web|url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/watch/2012/03/07/past-present-and-future-of-nasa-us-senate-testimony-video |title=Past, Present, and Future of NASA - U.S. Senate Testimony (Video)|publisher=Hayden Planetarium |accessdate=04 Dec 2012 |date=07 Mar 2012}}</ref> Inspired by Tyson's advocacy and remarks, the [http://www.penny4nasa.org Penny4NASA] nonprofit was founded in 2012 by John Zeller and advocates the doubling of NASA's budget to one percent of the Federal Budget, or one "penny on the dollar."<ref name="penny4nasa-whywefight">{{cite web|title=Why We Fight - Penny4NASA|url=http://www.penny4nasa.org/why-we-fight/|publisher=Penny4NASA|accessdate=30 Nov 2012}}</ref> ==Current missions== [[File:Galileo probe deployed (large).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Deep space mission deployed by Shuttle, 1989]] Examples of some of NASA's current missions *[[2001 Mars Odyssey]], Mars orbiter *[[Cassini-Huygens|Cassini]], Saturn orbiter *[[Chandra X-ray Telescope]] *[[Curiosity rover]] ([[Mars Science Laboratory]]), Mars rover *[[Dawn (spacecraft)|Dawn]], asteroid orbiter *[[Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope]] *[[Hubble Space Telescope]] *[[International Space Station]] *[[Kepler mission]] *[[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]], Lunar orbiter *[[MESSENGER]], Mercury orbiter *[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]], Mars orbiter *[[New Horizons]] *[[Opportunity rover]], Mars rover *[[Solar Dynamics Observatory]] *[[Spitzer Space Telescope]] *[[STEREO]] *[[Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission]] ==See also== {{Portal|Government of the United States|Spaceflight}} {{columns-list|3| * [[AESP|Aerospace Education Services Project]] * [[Astronomy Picture of the Day]] * [[Astrotech Corporation]] * [[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]], Soviet space shuttle * [[Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office]] * [[Federation of Earth Science Information Partners (ESIP Federation)]] * [[List of aerospace engineering topics]] * [[List of NASA aircraft]] * [[List of NASA missions]] * [[List of rockets used by NASA]] * [[NASA Acquisition Internet Service]] * [[NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program]] * [[List of NASA awards|NASA awards and decorations]] * [[NASAcast]] * [[NASA insignia]] * [[NASA RealWorld-InWorld Engineering Design Challenge]] * [[NASA Research Park]] * [[NASA spin-off]] * [[Project A119]] * [[Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee]] * [[Robotic spacecraft]] * [[Saturn (rocket family)]] * [[Scientific research on the ISS]] * [[Small Explorer program]] * [[Space debris]] * [[Spacelab]] * [[Space policy of the Barack Obama administration]] * [[Space probe]] * [[Space race]] * [[Starlite (game)|Starlite]], a [[Massively multiplayer online game|MMO]] game by NASA * [[Timeline of Solar System exploration]] * [[Unmanned spacecraft]] * [[Vision for Space Exploration]] }} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-NASA.ogg|September 1, 2005}} {{commons category|NASA}} {{wikisource|National Aeronautics and Space Act}} {{Wikisource author}} ;General * [http://www.nasa.gov/ NASA Home Page] * [http://www.nasa.gov/offices/nesc/home/index.html NASA Engineering and Safety Center] * [http://nix.nasa.gov/ NASA Photos] and [http://www.nasaimages.org/ NASA Images] * [http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/ NASA Television] and [http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/ NASA podcasts] * {{Google+|+NASA}} * {{Youtube|user=NASAtelevision}} * {{Twitter|NASA|@NASA}} * [http://www.nasawatch.com/ NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site] * [http://www.nasa.gov/missions/highlights/schedule.html Future NASA Launch Missions] * [http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/clickmap/ The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/N.html NASA Documents relating to the Space Program, 1953–62, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/nasa.html Online documents pertaining to the early history and development of NASA, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] * [http://www.ourarchives.wikispaces.net/National+Aeronautics+and+Space+Administration+Records+Available+at+the+National+Archives+at+Atlanta NASA records available for research at the National Archives at Atlanta] * Historic technical reports from NASA (and other Federal agencies) are available in the [http://www.technicalreports.org/ Technical Reports Archive and Image Library (TRAIL)] ;Further reading * [http://science.howstuffworks.com/nasa.htm How NASA works on howstuffworks.com] * [http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/home/index.html NASA for Kids] * [http://history.nasa.gov/ NASA History Division] * [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/main/this_month_main.html Monthly look at Exploration events] * [http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System] * [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/ NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server] * [http://history.nasa.gov/launiuspharticle.pdf NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past] * [http://www.spacebusiness.com/quest "Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly"] {{NASA space program|state=collapsed}} {{NASA centers}} {{Public sector space agencies}} {{US research agencies}} {{Good article}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2012}} {{DEFAULTSORT:NASA}} [[Category:NASA|*]] [[Category:Government agencies established in 1958]] [[Category:1958 establishments in the United States]] [[Category:Organizations based in Washington, D.C.]] [[Category:Government of the United States]] {{Link FA|eo}} {{Link GA|pl}} [[af:NASA]] [[ang:NASA]] [[ar:ناسا]] [[ast:NASA]] [[az:NASA]] [[bn:নাসা]] [[bjn:NASA]] [[zh-min-nan:NASA]] [[be:НАСА]] [[be-x-old:NASA]] [[bg:НАСА]] [[bs:NASA]] [[br:NASA]] [[ca:NASA]] [[cs:NASA]] [[cy:NASA]] [[da:NASA]] [[de:National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] [[et:NASA]] [[el:NASA]] [[es:NASA]] [[eo:NASA]] [[ext:NASA]] [[eu:NASA]] [[fa:ناسا]] [[fo:NASA]] [[fr:National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] [[fy:NASA]] [[ga:NASA]] [[gv:NASA]] [[gd:NASA]] [[gl:NASA]] [[gu:નાસા]] [[hak:Mî-koet Thai-khûng Tsúng-shu]] [[ko:미국 항공우주국]] [[hy:ՆԱՍԱ]] [[hi:नासा]] [[hr:NASA]] [[id:NASA]] [[ia:NASA]] [[is:Geimferðastofnun Bandaríkjanna]] [[it:NASA]] [[he:נאס"א]] [[jv:NASA]] [[kn:ನಾಸಾ]] [[ka:ნასა]] [[kk:НАСА]] [[sw:NASA]] [[ku:NASA]] [[la:NASA]] [[lv:NASA]] [[lb:NASA]] [[lt:NASA]] [[li:NASA]] [[hu:NASA]] [[mk:НАСА]] [[ml:നാസ]] [[mr:नासा]] [[xmf:ნასა]] [[mzn:ناسا]] [[ms:NASA]] [[my:နာဆာ]] [[nl:National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] [[ne:नासा]] [[ja:アメリカ航空こうくう宇宙うちゅう局きょく]] [[nap:NASA]] [[no:NASA]] [[nn:NASA]] [[oc:National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] [[om:NASA]] [[uz:NASA]] [[pa:ਨਾਸਾ]] [[pnb:ناسا]] [[pms:Aministrassion Nassional dl'Areonàutica e dlë Spassi]] [[nds:NASA]] [[pl:NASA]] [[pt:NASA]] [[kaa:NASA]] [[ro:NASA]] [[ru:НАСА]] [[sco:NASA]] [[stq:NASA]] [[sq:Administrata Kombëtare Aeronautike Hapësinore Amerikane]] [[scn:NASA]] [[si:නාසා]] [[simple:NASA]] [[sk:National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] [[sl:NASA]] [[ckb:ناسا]] [[sr:НАСА]] [[sh:NASA]] [[fi:NASA]] [[sv:NASA]] [[tl:NASA]] [[ta:தேசிய வானூர்தியியல் மற்றும் விண்வெளி நிர்வாகம்]] [[te:నేషనల్ ఏరోనాటిక్స్ మరియు స్పేస్ అడ్మినిస్ట్రేషన్]] [[th:นาซา]] [[tr:NASA]] [[uk:Національне управління з аеронавтики і дослідження космічного простору]] [[ur:ناسا]] [[vi:NASA]] [[war:NASA]] [[yo:NASA]] [[zh-yue:美國びくに太たい空そら總そう署しょ]] [[diq:NASA]] [[bat-smg:NASA]] [[zh:美国びくに国家こっか航空こうくう航こう天てん局きょく]]'