(Translated by https://www.hiragana.jp/)
Monitor lizard - Wikipedia Jump to content

Monitor lizard

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Varanus)

Monitor lizard
Temporal range: Early Miocene – Recent
Left: V. salvator, V. flavescens, V. tristis, V. prasinus Right: V. komodoensis, V. giganteus, V. albigularis, V. varius
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Varanidae
Genus: Varanus
Merrem, 1820
Type species
Lacerta varia[citation needed]
Shaw, 1790
Subgenera
Combined native range of all the monitor lizards
Skulls of various varanoids

Monitor lizards are lizards in the genus Varanus, the only extant genus in the family Varanidae. They are native to Africa, Asia, and Oceania, and one species is also found in the Americas as an invasive species.[1] About 80 species are recognized.

Monitor lizards have long necks, powerful tails and claws, and well-developed limbs. The adult length of extant species ranges from 20 cm (7.9 in) in some species such as Varanus sparnus, to over 3 m (10 ft) in the case of the Komodo dragon, though the extinct megalania (Varanus priscus) may have reached lengths of more than 7 m (23 ft). Most monitor species are terrestrial, but many are also arboreal or semiaquatic. While most monitor lizards are carnivorous, eating smaller reptiles, fish, birds, insects, small mammals, and eggs, a few species also eat fruit and vegetation.[2]

Etymology

[edit]

The generic name Varanus is derived from the Arabic word ورل waral [Standard Arabic] / ورر warar [colloquially] / ورن waran [colloquially], from a common Semitic root ouran, waran, warar or waral, meaning "lizard beast".[3]

In English, they are known as "monitors" or "monitor lizards". The earlier term "monitory lizard" became rare by about 1920.[4] The name may have been suggested by the occasional habit of varanids to stand on their two hind legs and to appear to "monitor",[3] or perhaps from their supposed habit of "warning people of the approach of venomous animals".[5] But all of these explanations for the name "monitor" postdate Linnaeus giving the scientific name Lacerta monitor to the Nile monitor in 1758, which may have been based on a mistaken idea by Linnaeus that the German word Waran (borrowed from Arabic) was connected to warnen (to warn), leading him to incorrectly Latinize it as monitor ('warner', 'adviser').[6]

Austronesian languages spoken across Southeast Asia, where varanids are common, have a large number of slightly related local names for them. They are usually known as biawak (Malay, including Indonesian standard variety), bayawak (Filipino), binjawak or minjawak or nyambik (Javanese), or variations thereof.[7] Other names include hokai (Solomon Islands); bwo, puo, or soa (Maluku); halo (Cebu); galuf or kaluf (Micronesia and the Caroline Islands); batua or butaan (Luzon); alu (Bali); hora or ghora (Komodo group of islands); phut (Burmese); and guibang (Manobo).[8][9]

In South Asia, they are known as hangkok in Meitei, mwpou in Boro, ghorpad घोरपड in Marathi, uḍumbu உடும்பு in Tamil and udumbu ഉടുമ്പ് in Malayalam, bilgoh in Bhojpuri, gohi (गोहि) in Maithili, in Sinhala as තලගොයා / කබරගොයා (talagoya [land monitor] / kabaragoya [water monitor where kabara means vitiligo]), in Telugu as uḍumu (ఉడుము), in Kannada as uḍa (ಉಡ), in Punjabi and Magahi as गोह (goh), in Assamese as gui xaap, in Odia as ଗୋଧି (godhi), and in Bengali as গোসাপ (goshaap) or গুইসাপ (guishaap), and गोह (goh) in Hindi and गोधा (godhā) in Sanskrit.[10]

The West African Nile monitor is known by several names in Yoruba, including awọ́nríwọ́n, awọ̀n, and àlégbà. In Wolof it is known as mbossé or bar, and is the traditional totem of the city of Kaolack.[11]

Due to confusion with the large New World lizards of the family Iguanidae, the lizards became known as "goannas" in Australia. Similarly, in South African English, they are referred to as leguaans, or likkewaans, from the Dutch term for the Iguanidae, leguanen.

Distribution

[edit]

The various species cover a vast area, occurring through Africa, the Indian subcontinent, to China, the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, south to Southeast Asia to Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, Australia, and islands of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. They have also been introduced outside of their natural range, for instance, the West African Nile monitor is now found in South Florida.[12] Monitor lizards also occurred widely in Europe in the Neogene, with the last known remains in the region dating to the Middle Pleistocene.[13]

Habits and diet

[edit]

Most monitor lizards are almost entirely carnivorous,[14] consuming prey as varied as insects, crustaceans, arachnids, myriapods, molluscs, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Most species feed on invertebrates as juveniles and shift to feeding on vertebrates as adults. Deer make up about 50% of the diet of adult Komodo dragons, the largest monitor species.[15] In contrast, three arboreal species from the Philippines, Varanus bitatawa, mabitang, and olivaceus, are primarily fruit eaters.[16][17][18]

Biology

[edit]

Monitor lizards are considered unique among animals in that its members are relatively morphologically conservative, yet show a very large size range.[19] However, finer morphological features such as the shape of the skull and limbs do vary, and are strongly related to the ecology of each species.[20][21]

Monitor lizards maintain large territories and employ active-pursuit hunting techniques that are reminiscent of similar-sized mammals.[22] The active nature of monitor lizards has led to numerous studies on the metabolic capacities of these lizards. The general consensus is that monitor lizards have the highest standard metabolic rates of all extant reptiles.[23]

Like snakes, monitor lizards have highly forked tongues that act as part of the "smell" sense, where the tips of the tongue carry molecules from the environment to sensory organs in the skull. The forked apparatus allows for these lizards to sense boundaries in the molecules they collect, almost smelling in "stereo".[24]

Monitor lizards have a high aerobic scope[23][25] that is afforded, in part, by their heart anatomy. Whereas most reptiles are considered to have three-chambered hearts, the hearts of monitor lizards – as with those of boas and pythons – have a well developed ventricular septum that completely separates the pulmonary and systemic sides of the circulatory system during systole.[26] This allows monitor lizards to create mammalian-equivalent pressure differentials between the pulmonary and systemic circuits,[26] which in turn ensure that oxygenated blood is quickly distributed to the body without also flooding the lungs with high-pressure blood.

Monitor lizards are oviparous,[23] laying from seven to 38 eggs,[27] which they often cover with soil or protect in a hollow tree stump. Some species, including the Komodo dragon, are capable of parthenogenesis.[28]

Venom

[edit]

Anatomical and molecular studies indicate that all varanids (and possibly all lizards) are venomous.[29][30] Unlike snakes, monitor lizard venom glands are situated in their lower jaw.[31] The venom of monitor lizards is diverse and complex, as a result of the diverse ecological niches monitor lizards occupy.[32]

For example, many species have anticoagulant venom, disrupting clotting through a combination of fibrinogenolysis and blocking platelet aggregation. Amongst them, arboreal species, such as the tree monitors and the banded monitor, have by far the strongest fibrinogenolytic venom. As a result, wounds from monitor lizard bites often bleed more than they would if they were simply lacerations. Venom may also cause hypotension.[33]

In some species such as the Komodo dragon and the desert monitor, venom also induces a powerful neurotoxic effect. In the latter species for instance, envenomation causes immediate paralysis in rodents (but not birds) and lesser effects of the same nature in humans.[34]

Intelligence

[edit]
See also: Animal cognition

At least some species of monitors are known to be able to count; studies feeding rock monitors varying numbers of snails showed that they can distinguish numbers up to six.[35][36] Nile monitors have been observed to cooperate when foraging; one animal lures the female crocodile away from her nest, while the other opens the nest to feed on the eggs. The decoy then returns to also feed on the eggs.[35][36] Komodo dragons at the National Zoo in Washington, DC, recognize their keepers and seem to have distinct personalities.[36] Blue and green tree monitors in British zoos have been observed shredding leaves, apparently as a form of play.[37]

Human Uses

[edit]

As pets

[edit]
Injured Bengal monitor being nursed at the Lok Biradari Prakalp in India

Monitor lizards have become a staple in the reptile pet trade. The most commonly kept monitors are the savannah monitor and Ackie dwarf monitor, due to their relatively small size, low cost, and relatively calm dispositions with regular handling.[3] Among others, black-throated, Timor, Asian water, Nile, mangrove, emerald tree, black tree, roughneck, Dumeril's, peach-throated, crocodile, and Argus monitors have been kept in captivity.[3]

Traditional medicines

[edit]

Monitor lizards are poached in some South- and Southeast Asian countries, as their organs and fat are used in some traditional medicines, although there is no scientific evidence as to their effectiveness.[38][39]

Monitor lizard meat, particularly the tongue and liver, is eaten in parts of India and Malaysia and is supposed to be an aphrodisiac.[40][41]

In parts of Pakistan and southern India, as well in Northeastern India, particularly Assam, the different parts of monitor lizards are traditionally used for treating rheumatic pain, skin infections and hemorrhoids, and the oil is used as an aphrodisiac lubricant (sande ka tel).[42]

Consuming raw blood and flesh of monitor lizards has been reported to cause eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, as some monitors are hosts for the parasite Angiostrongylus cantonensis.[40]

Leather

[edit]

"Large-scale exploitation" of monitor lizards is undertaken for their skins, which are described as being "of considerable utility" in the leather industry.[42] In Papua New Guinea, monitor lizard leather is used for membranes in traditional drums (called kundu), and these lizards are referred to as kundu palai or "drum lizard" in Tok Pisin, the main Papuan trade language. Monitor lizard skins are prized in making the resonant part of serjas (Bodo folk sarangis) and dotaras (native strummed string instruments of Assam, Bengal and other eastern states). The leather is also used in making a Carnatic music percussion instrument called the kanjira.

Food

[edit]

The meat of monitor lizards is eaten by some tribes in India,[43] Nepal,[44] the Philippines, Australia, South Africa and West Africa as a supplemental meat source.[citation needed] Both meat and eggs are also eaten in Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam and Thailand as a delicacy.[45]

Conservation

[edit]

According to IUCN Red List of threatened species, most of the monitor lizards species fall in the categories of least concern, but the population is decreasing globally. All but five species of monitor lizards are classified by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora under Appendix II, which is loosely defined as species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in such species is subject to strict regulation to avoid use incompatible with the survival of the species in the wild. The remaining five species – the Bengal, yellow, desert, and clouded monitors and the Komodo Dragon– are classified under CITES Appendix I, which outlaws international commercial trade in the species.[46]

The yellow monitor is protected in all countries in its range except Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.[47]

In Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana and all other parts of South India, catching or killing of monitor lizards is banned under the Protected Species Act.

Evolution

[edit]
The giant extinct megalania (Varanus priscus)

Varanus is the only living genus of the family Varanidae. Varanids last shared a common ancestor with their closest living relatives, earless "monitors", during the Late Cretaceous. The oldest known varanids are from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. During the Eocene, the varanid Saniwa occurred in North America. The closest known relative of Varanus is Archaeovaranus from the Eocene of China, suggesting that the genus Varanus is of Asian origin. The oldest fossils of Varanus date to the early Miocene.[48]

Many of the species within the various subgenera also form species complexes with each other:

Euprepriosaurus

Odatria

Varanus

Polydaedalus

Empagusia

Soterosaurus

The tree monitors of the V. prasinus species complex (V. prasinus, V. beccarii, V. boehmei, V. bogerti, V. keithhornei, V. kordensis, V. macraei, V. reisingeri, V. telenesetes) were once in the subgenus Euprepriosaurus, but as of 2016, form their own subgenus Hapturosaurus.[51]

V. jobiensis was once considered to be a member of the V. indicus species complex, but is now considered to represent its own species complex.[51]

Phylogeny as of Brennan et al. 2020 [56]

Taxonomy

[edit]
Bengal monitor (V. bengalensis) with green iguana (Iguana iguana)
Dumeril's monitor (V. dumerilii)

Genus Varanus

Species marked with † are extinct

Subgenus Empagusia:

Clouded monitor (V. nebulosus)
Blue-tailed monitor (V. doreanus)
Blue-spotted tree monitor (V. macraei)

Subgenus Euprepiosaurus:[61]

Timor tree monitor (V. timorensis)

Subgenus Hapturosaurus:[51]

Ridge-tailed monitor (V. acanthurus)
Crocodile monitor (V. salvadorii)
Northern Sierra Madre forest monitor (V. bitatawa)

Subgenus Odatria:

Subgenus Papusaurus

Subgenus Philippinosaurus:

White-throated monitor (V. a. albigularis) on the Kalahari savannah
"Ornate monitor", "V. ornatus"

Subgenus Polydaedalus:

Caspian monitor (V. g. caspius)
Water monitor (V. salvator)

Subgenus Psammosaurus:

  • V. griseus, desert monitor
    • V. g. griseus, desert monitor, grey monitor
    • V. g. caspius, Caspian monitor
    • V. g. koniecznyi, Indian desert monitor, Thar desert monitor
  • V. nesterovi, Nesterov's desert monitor

Subgenus Solomonsaurus:[70]

  • V. spinulosus, spiny-necked mangrove monitor, Solomon Islands spiny monitor
Perentie (V. giganteus)

Subgenus Soterosaurus:

Komodo dragon (V. komodoensis)

Subgenus Varanus:

[edit]
  • Unknown species lizard in Raja Ampat Papua, 2016
    Unknown species lizard in Raja Ampat Papua, 2016
  • Varanus jobiensis in Raja Ampat Papua, 2017
    Varanus jobiensis in Raja Ampat Papua, 2017
  • Varanus jobiensis in Raja Ampat Papua, 2017
    Varanus jobiensis in Raja Ampat Papua, 2017


References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Monitor | lizard | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2023-05-23. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
  2. ^ Bauer, Aaron M. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 157–159. ISBN 0-12-178560-2.
  3. ^ a b c d Robert George Sprackland (1992). Giant lizards. Neptune, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. p. 61. ISBN 0-86622-634-6.
  4. ^ Google ngrams
  5. ^ Horatio Nelson, Matthew Henry Barker, The Life of Nelson Revised and Illustrated. With Original Anecdotes, Notes, Etc. By the Old Sailor, 1836 p. 35
  6. ^ Heinrich Zimmern (1915). Akkadische Fremdwörter als Beweis für babylonischen Kultureinfluss (Thesis) (in German). Universität Leipzig. p. 52. OCLC 697605207.
  7. ^ Blust, Robert; Trussel, Stephen (2010). "*bayawak: monitor lizard, Varanus spp. (esp. V. salvator)". Austronesian Comparative Dictionary. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
  8. ^ Mark K. Bayless (2004). "The local names of Pacific monitor lizards (Sauria: Varanidae) of Oceania & Indo-Malaysia, excluding Australia" (PDF). Micronesia. 37 (1): 49–55.
  9. ^ Maren Gaulke (1992). "Taxonomy and biology of Philippine water monitors (Varanus salvator)". The Philippine Journal of Science. 121 (4): 345–381.
  10. ^ Turner, Ralph Lilley; Turner, Dorothy Rivers (1966). "#4286". A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages. London: Oxford university press. ISBN 978-0-19-713550-1.
  11. ^ Kesteloot, Lilyan; Veirman, Anja (1999). "Un lieu de mémoire sans stèle et sans visite guidée : le culte du Mboose à Kaolack (Sénégal)". Histoire d'Afrique : les enjeux de mémoire (in French). Paris: Karthala. p. 83-91. ISBN 9782865379040.
  12. ^ Yong, Ed (20 April 2016). "Florida's Dragon Problem". The Atlantic.
  13. ^ L, Georgalis Georgios; Andrea, Villa; Massimo, Delfino (4 March 2017). "The last European varanid: demise and extinction of monitor lizards (Squamata, Varanidae) from Europe". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 37 (2): e1301946. Bibcode:2017JVPal..37E1946G. doi:10.1080/02724634.2017.1301946. hdl:2318/1635702. ISSN 0272-4634. S2CID 90865661.
  14. ^ Pianka, Eric R.; King, Dennis R; King, Ruth Allen (2004). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
  15. ^ Auffenberg, Walter (1981). The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor. University Press of Florida.
  16. ^ Greene, Harry W. (1986). Diet and Arboreality in the Emerald Monitor, Varanus Prasinus, with Comments on the Study of Adaptation. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. OCLC 14915452. OL 7155983M.
  17. ^ Welton, L. J.; Siler, C. D.; Bennett, D.; Diesmos, A.; Duya, M. R.; Dugay, R.; Rico, E. L. B.; Van Weerd, M.; Brown, R. M. (2010). "A spectacular new Philippine monitor lizard reveals a hidden biogeographic boundary and a novel flagship species for conservation". Biology Letters. 6 (5): 654–658. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0119. PMC 2936141. PMID 20375042.
  18. ^ Struck, U; Altenbach, AV; Gaulke, M; F, Glaw (2002). "Tracing the diet of the monitor lizard Varanus mabitang by stable isotope analyses (d15N, d13C)". Naturwissenschaften. 89 (10): 470–473. doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0361-8. PMID 12384723. S2CID 12091969.
  19. ^ Pianka, E.R. (1995). "Evolution of Body Size: Varanid Lizards as a Model System" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 146 (3): 398–414. doi:10.1086/285806. S2CID 85237692.
  20. ^ McCurry, Matthew R.; Mahony, Michael; Clausen, Phillip D.; Quayle, Michelle R.; Walmsley, Christopher W.; Jessop, Tim S.; Wroe, Stephen; Richards, Heather; McHenry, Colin R. (2015). "The Relationship between Cranial Structure, Biomechanical Performance and Ecological Diversity in Varanoid Lizards". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0130625. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1030625M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130625. PMC 4479569. PMID 26106889.
  21. ^ Clemente, C. J.; Thompson, G. G.; Withers, P. C. (2009). "Evolutionary relationships of sprint speed in Australian varanid lizards". Journal of Zoology. 278 (4): 270–280. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00559.x.
  22. ^ King, D., Green, B., Knight, F. (1999). Monitors: The Biology of Varanid Lizards. Florida. Krieger Publishing Company.
  23. ^ a b c Pianka, E.R., Vitt, L.J. (2003). Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of Diversity. California. University of California Press.
  24. ^ Sack, Jeffrey D. (2022-08-01). "True Facts: Snake and Lizard Tongues". The American Biology Teacher. 84 (6): 378. doi:10.1525/abt.2022.84.6.378. ISSN 0002-7685. S2CID 251407423.
  25. ^ Wood SC, Johansen K, Glass ML, Maloiy GMO (1978). "Aerobic Metabolism of the Lizard Varanus exanthematicus: Effects of Activity, Temperature, and Size". Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 127 (4): 331–336. doi:10.1007/BF00738417. S2CID 19320799.
  26. ^ a b Wang T, Altimiras J, Klein W, Axelsson M (2003). "Ventricular Haemodynamics in Python molurus: Separation of Pulmonary and Systemic Pressures". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (Pt 23): 4241–5. doi:10.1242/jeb.00681. PMID 14581594.
  27. ^ https://indonesiaindonesia.com/f/37477-sejarah-pulau-komodo/ (in Indonesian)
  28. ^ Smith, Kerri (2006). "Dragon virgin births startle zoo keepers". Nature. doi:10.1038/news061218-7. S2CID 191590714. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
  29. ^ Fry BG, Wroe S, Teeuwisse W, van Osch JP, Moreno K, Ingle J, McHenry C, Ferrara T, Clausen P, Scheib H, Winter KL, Greisman L, Roelants K, van der Weerd L, Clemente CJ, Giannakis E, Hodgson WC, Luz S, Martelli P, Krishnasamy K, Kochva E, Kwok HF, Scanlon D, Karas J, Citron DM, Goldstein EJ, Mcnaughtan JE, Norman JA (June 2009). "A central role for venom in predation by Varanus komodoensis (Komodo dragon) and the extinct giant Varanus (Megalania) priscus". PNAS. 106 (22): 8969–8974. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8969F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810883106. PMC 2690028. PMID 19451641.
  30. ^ Fry BG, Vidal N, Norman JA, Vonk FJ, Scheib H, Ramjan SF, Kuruppu S, Fung K, Hedges B, Richardson MK, Hodgson WC, Ignjatovic V, Summerhays R, Kochva E (February 2006). "Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes". Nature. 439 (7076): 584–588. Bibcode:2006Natur.439..584F. doi:10.1038/nature04328. PMID 16292255. S2CID 4386245.
  31. ^ Fry, Bryan G.; Wroe, Stephen; Teeuwisse, Wouter; van Osch, Matthias J. P.; Moreno, Karen; Ingle, Janette; McHenry, Colin; Ferrara, Toni; Clausen, Phillip; Scheib, Holger; Winter, Kelly L.; Greisman, Laura; Roelants, Kim; van der Weerd, Louise; Clemente, Christofer J. (2009-06-02). "A central role for venom in predation by Varanus komodoensis (Komodo Dragon) and the extinct giant Varanus ( Megalania ) priscus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (22): 8969–8974. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8969F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810883106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2690028. PMID 19451641.
  32. ^ Dobson, James S.; Zdenek, Christina N.; Hay, Chris; Violette, Aude; Fourmy, Rudy; Cochran, Chip; Fry, Bryan G. (May 2019). "Varanid Lizard Venoms Disrupt the Clotting Ability of Human Fibrinogen through Destructive Cleavage". Toxins. 11 (5): 255. doi:10.3390/toxins11050255. PMC 6563220. PMID 31067768.
  33. ^ Dobson, James S.; Zdenek, Christina N.; Hay, Chris; Violette, Aude; Fourmy, Rudy; Cochran, Chip; Fry, Bryan G. (2019-05-07). "Varanid Lizard Venoms Disrupt the Clotting Ability of Human Fibrinogen through Destructive Cleavage". Toxins. 11 (5): 255. doi:10.3390/toxins11050255. ISSN 2072-6651. PMC 6563220. PMID 31067768.
  34. ^ Zima, Yuliya (December 2019). "On the Toxicity of the Bite of the Caspian Gray Monitor Lizard (Varanus griseus caspius)". Biawak. 13 (2): 115–118 – via ResearchGate.
  35. ^ a b King, Dennis & Green, Brian. 1999. Goannas: The Biology of Varanid Lizards. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 0-86840-456-X, p. 43.
  36. ^ a b c Pianka, E.R.; King, D.R. and King, R.A. (2004). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press.
  37. ^ Kane, D; Davis, AC; Michaels, C (2019). "Play behaviour by captive tree monitors, Varanus macraei and Varanus prasinus". Herpetological Bulletin (149): 28–31. doi:10.33256/hb149.2831.
  38. ^ "How Lizard Genitalia Became a Black Market Craze". National Geographic Society. 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on March 3, 2021.
  39. ^ "Visakhapatnam: Monsoon activates monitor lizard poaching". 4 July 2017.
  40. ^ a b Parameswaran, K (2006). "Case series of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis from South India". Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology. 9 (4): 217–222. doi:10.4103/0972-2327.29203.
  41. ^ Eating Biawak. The Malaysian Life (April 2009)
  42. ^ a b Hashmi, M. Usman Ali; Khan, M. Zaheer; Amtyaz; Huda, Nawaz Ul. "Current Status, Distribution and Threats of Varanus Species (Varanus bengalensis & Varanus griseus) in Karachi & Thatta of Sindh" (PDF). International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies. 1 (1). AkiNik Publications: 34–38. ISSN 2347-2677. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  43. ^ "Meats We Also Eat". The Telegraph India. 2017-01-08. Archived from the original on August 12, 2018. Retrieved 2018-08-12.
  44. ^ Ghimire HR, Phuyal S, Shah KB (2014). "Protected species outside the protected areas: People's attitude, threats and conservation of the Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens) in the Far-western Lowlands of Nepal". Journal for Nature Conservation. 22 (6): 497–503. Bibcode:2014JNatC..22..497G. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2014.08.003.
  45. ^ Side, Sonny (5 June 2019). "Eating a DINOSAUR in Asia!!! RARE Mekong Delta Food you will only find here!". Archived from the original on 2021-11-07 – via YouTube.
  46. ^ "Identification Guides for Wildlife Traded in Southeast Asia". ASEAN-WEN. 2008.
  47. ^ Ghimire HR, Shah KB (2014). "Status and habitat ecology of the Yellow Monitor, Varanus flavescens, in the Southeastern part of Kanchanpur District, Nepal" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 9 (2): 387–393.
  48. ^ Dong, Liping; Wang, Yuan-Qing; Zhao, Qi; Vasilyan, Davit; Wang, Yuan; Evans, Susan E. (2022-03-28). "A new stem-varanid lizard (Reptilia, Squamata) from the early Eocene of China". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 377 (1847): 20210041. doi:10.1098/rstb.2021.0041. PMC 8819366. PMID 35125002.
  49. ^ a b "Recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee". 1997-03-07. Archived from the original on 2008-05-18.
  50. ^ a b Böhme, Wolfgang (2019-11-23). "The Kei Islands Monitor Lizard (Squamata: Varanidae: Varanus: Euprepiosaurus) as a Distinct Morphological, Taxonomic, and Conservation Unit". Russian Journal of Herpetology. 26 (5): 272–280. doi:10.30906/1026-2296-2019-26-5-272-280. S2CID 213867767.
  51. ^ a b c d e Weijola, Valter (2019-03-14). "A molecular phylogeny for the Pacific monitor lizards (Varanus subgenus Euprepiosaurus) reveals a recent and rapid radiation with high levels of cryptic diversity". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 186 (4): 1053–1066. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz002.
  52. ^ BÖHME, WOLFGANG (2003). "Checklist of the living lizards of the world (family Varanidae)". Zool. Verh. Leiden. 341.
  53. ^ Koch, Andre (2010). "Updated checklist of the living monitor lizards of the world (Squamata: Varanidae)". Bonn Zoological Bulletin. 57: 127–136.
  54. ^ Koch, Andre (2010-05-06). "Unravelling The Underestimated Diversity Of Philippine Water Monitor Lizards (Squamata: Varanus Salvator Complex), With The Description Of Two New Species And A New Subspecies". Zootaxa. 2446: 1–54. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2446.1.1.
  55. ^ Mendyk, Robert (2018). "An Annotated Bibliography of Captive Reproduction in Monitor Lizards (Varanidae: Varanus). Part III. Soterosaurus". Biawak. 12.
  56. ^ Brennan, Ian G.; Lemmon, Alan R.; Lemmon, Emily Moriarty; Portik, Daniel M.; Weijola, Valter; Welton, Luke; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Keogh, J. Scott (2020-02-03). "Phylogenomics of monitor lizards and the role of competition in dictating body size disparity". bioRxiv: 2020.02.02.931188. doi:10.1101/2020.02.02.931188. S2CID 211297088.
  57. ^ a b c d e f g h i Molnar, Ralph E. (2004). "The Long and Honorable History of Monitors and their Kin". In Pianka, Eric R.; King, Dennis R.; King, Ruth Allen (eds.). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34366-6.
  58. ^ Pianka, Eric R.; King, Dennis; King, Ruth Allen (2004). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press. pp. 40, 106. ISBN 978-0-253-34366-6.
  59. ^ Villa, Andrea; Abella, Juan; Alba, David M.; Almécija, Sergio; Bolet, Arnau; Koufos, George D.; Knoll, Fabien; Luján, Àngel H.; Morales, Jorge; Robles, Josep M.; Sánchez, Israel M. (2018-12-05). "Revision of Varanus marathonensis (Squamata, Varanidae) based on historical and new material: morphology, systematics, and paleobiogeography of the European monitor lizards". PLOS ONE. 13 (12): e0207719. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307719V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207719. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6281198. PMID 30517172.
  60. ^ a b Ivanov, Martin; Ruta, Marcello; Klembara, Jozef; Böhme, Madelaine (2018-07-15). "A new species of Varanus (Anguimorpha: Varanidae) from the early Miocene of the Czech Republic, and its relationships and palaeoecology" (PDF). Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 16 (9): 767–797. Bibcode:2018JSPal..16..767I. doi:10.1080/14772019.2017.1355338. ISSN 1477-2019. S2CID 73543240.
  61. ^ Ziegler, Thomas; Schmitz, Andreas; Koch, Andre; Böhme, Wolfgang (2007). "A review of the subgenus Euprepiosaurus of Varanus (Squamata: Varanidae): morphological and molecular phylogeny, distribution and zoogeography, with an identification key for the members of the V. indicus and the V. prasimus species groups". Zootaxa 1472: 1-28.
  62. ^ a b Weijola, Valter; Vahtera, Varpu; Koch, André; Schmitz, Andreas; Kraus, Fred (2020). "Taxonomy of Micronesian monitors (Reptilia: Squamata: Varanus): endemic status of new species argues for caution in pursuing eradication plans". Royal Society Open Science. 7 (5): 200092. Bibcode:2020RSOS....700092W. doi:10.1098/rsos.200092. PMC 7277287. PMID 32537217.
  63. ^ a b Weijola, Valter; Kraus, Fred (2023). "Two new species of monitor lizards (Squamata: Varanus) endemic to the Louisiade and Tanimbar archipelagos". Journal of Natural History. 57 (13–16): 947–975. doi:10.1080/00222933.2023.2218574.
  64. ^ Weijola, Valter; Sweet, Samuel (2010). "A new melanistic species of monitor lizard (Reptilia: Squamata: Varanidae) from Sanana Island, Indonesia" (PDF). Zootaxa. 2434: 17–32. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2434.1.2.
  65. ^ Weijola, Valter; Donnellan, Stephen; Lindqvist, Christer (2016). "A new blue-tailed Monitor lizard (Reptilia, Squamata, Varanus) of the Varanus indicus group from Mussau Island, Papua New Guinea". ZooKeys (568): 129–54. Bibcode:2016ZooK..568..129W. doi:10.3897/zookeys.568.6872. PMC 4829673. PMID 27103877.
  66. ^ Varanus keithhornei, The Reptile Database
  67. ^ Varanus prasinus, The Reptile Database
  68. ^ Eidenmüller, Bernd; Wicker, Rudolf (2005). "Eine weitere neue Waranart aus dem Varanus prasinus-Komplex von den Insel Misol, Indonesian ". Sauria 27 (1): 3-8. (Varanus reisingeri, new species). (in German).
  69. ^ a b c Pavón-Vázquez, Carlos J.; Esquerré, Damien; Fitch, Alison J.; Maryan, Brad; Doughty, Paul; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Keogh, J. Scott (2022-08-01). "Between a rock and a dry place: phylogenomics, biogeography, and systematics of ridge-tailed monitors (Squamata: Varanidae: Varanus acanthurus complex)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 173: 107516. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107516. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 35577290. S2CID 248807709.
  70. ^ Bucklitsch, Yannick (2016-08-17). "Scale Morphology and Micro-Structure of Monitor Lizards (Squamata: Varanidae: Varanus spp.) and their Allies: Implications for Systematics, Ecology, and Conservation". Zootaxa. 4153 (1): 1–192. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4153.1.1. PMID 27615821.
  71. ^ a b Brendan M. Lynch (2015-01-12). "Undercover researchers expose two new species of lizard for sale on Philippine black market". KU Today. KU | The University of Kansas.
  72. ^ Koch, André; Gaulke, Maren; Böhme, Wolfgang (2010). "Unravelling the underestimated diversity of Philippine water monitor Lizards (Squamata: Varanus salvator complex), with description of two new species and a new subspecies". Zootaxa 2446: 1-54. (Varanus rasmusseni, new species, p. 28).
  73. ^ Varanus rasmusseni, The Reptile Database

Further reading

[edit]
  • Merrem B (1820). Versuchs eines Systems der Amphibien: Tentamen Systematis Amphibiorum. Marburg: J.C. Krieger. xv + 191 pp. + one plate. (Varanus, new genus, p. 58). (in German and Latin).
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monitor_lizard&oldid=1253327115"