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Ancient Pakistan

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Statue of a Bodhisattva in the Gandhara art, art style that developed in the Gandhara region of Ancient Pakistan.

Ancient Pakistan or Ancient Indus Valley[1] (also the Greater Indus Region or the Greater Indus Valley)[2][3][4] is a Geo-Cultural Cradle[note 1] that covers the history of Pakistan from prehistoric times until the start of the Medieval period. It includes many different cultures, languages, social systems, and religions, creating a special and lasting cultural identity known for tolerance, variety, and adaptation.[6][7] Since the beginning, the land of Pakistan has been shaped by the Indus River (Urdu: Darya-i-Sindh) and its tributaries, as well as the Himalayas, Karakoram, Pamir and Hindu Kush mountain ranges.[8] Surrounded by the sandy Thar and Cholistan deserts, the rough hills and valleys of Balochistan, and the shiny Arabian Sea, Pakistan's land has been a place where people have lived since ancient times and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited land in the world.[7][9] Ancient Pakistan has the oldest signs of humans outside Africa. Stone tools, over 2 million years old, were found in the Soan Valley.[10]

The history of Ancient Pakistan is seen in its valuable archaeological heritage, covering thousands of years of human effort and creativity. Proof of early human settlements, going back over 2.2 million years, has been found along the Soan River, near Islamabad, showing that this area is one of the oldest places where people lived.[11][12] The time known as the Neolithic period (6500–2500 BCE) saw the beginning of farming and the start of towns and cities, best seen in the old site of Mehrgarh in Sibi, where the earliest proof of farming and urban life in South Asia has been found.[13][14]

The etched carnelian beads in this necklace from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, Mesopotamia (2600-2500 BCE) were probably imported from the Indus Valley in Ancient Pakistan.[15]

Throughout its history, Ancient Pakistan has been a melting pot of civilizations and cultural sharing. The area saw the growth of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1300 BCE), one of the earliest urban societies and civilisations in the world. This civilization had well-planned cities, standard ways of measuring things, and a written language (Harappan language) that still hasn't been fully understood, showing how organized and advanced its society and culture were.[16][17] The cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were important centers for trade, culture, and government.[18] Later times saw the rise of the Vedic Civilization (c. 1500–500 BCE), started by the migration of Indo-Aryan tribes and the composition of the Vedas in Punjab, Pakistan.[19][20][21] The influence of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 518–330 BCE) extended into parts of ancient Pakistan, shaping its political and cultural landscape, while the Hellenic Period witnessed the establishment of Greek kingdoms in the region, blending Greek and local traditions.[22]

Seals of the Indus Valley civilization from Ancient Pakistan. The Indus script still hasn't been decoded and understood.

The Gandhara Civilization (c. 1500 BCE–500 CE) in the northwest of Pakistan emerged as a significant cultural and religious center, known for its unique artistic traditions (Gandhara art) blending Hellenistic and indigenous styles.[23][24] It became the second holy land of Buddhism after Magadha in Nepal and India.[25][26] Gandharan monks from Ancient Pakistan were the first to spread Buddhism in Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan.[27] Two of the world's major religions, Hinduism and Sikhism originated in modern-day Pakistan.[28][29][30] The Mahayana, Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism have roots in the Gandhara region of Pakistan.[31][32][33] The region of Pakistan has been known by various names throughout history, the oldest recorded name is Meluhha (Sumerian: 𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠), the Mesopotamian name for the Indus country.[34]

Names

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𓉔𓈖𓂧𓍯𓇌 H-n-d-wꜢ-y "Hindus (Indus)" written in Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Statue of Darius I, circa 500 BCE.
See the main article: Names of Pakistan

The region of Pakistan has been known by many different names throughout history. The Indus River, the national river of Pakistan, has shaped and is tied to much of Pakistan's ancient history. Ancient Pakistan was divided into many kingdoms and empires ruled by local or foreign dynasties, and different regions had different names.[8] The oldest recorded name of Pakistan is Meluhha (Sumerian: 𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠), the Mesopotamian name for the Indus country.[34] Traditionally, the Indus is one of the seven sacred rivers of South Asia. It is known in Sanskrit as the Sindhu, the terms ‘India’ and ‘Indonesia’ were both derived from the Indus River in Pakistan.[35][36] The name of ancient Pakistan is also known as far as the Achaemenid province of Egypt where it was written "𓉔𓈖𓂧𓍯𓇌 (H-n-d-wꜣ-y)" on the Statue of Darius I, circa 500 BCE.[37] In Chinese sources, the region of Ancient Pakistan was referred to as “Shendu 身み毒どく,” “Tiandu 天てん篤あつし,” and “Tianzhu 天竺てんじく," specifically referring to the Indus Valley.[38] The Greeks referred to the region as Indós (Greek: Ἰνδός), which came from the Achaemenid name "Old Persian: Həndu" for the Indus River.[39][40] Another indeginous name for ancient Pakistan was 'Sapta Sindhu,' meaning the land of seven rivers, specifically referring to the Punjab region. This name has been used in the Rigveda, which was composed in this region of Pakistan as well.[41] In Zoroastrian Avesta it is mentioned as 'Hapta-Hendu', which also means the land of seven rivers.[42] Ancient and medieval Pakistan was known to the Arab historians as "Biladu al-Sind بلاد السند", meaning the Land of Sind (Indus), or simply Sind, which is also the name of modern-day Pakistani province of Sindh.[43][44] The Mongols with Genghis Khan invaded the Indus Valley (Pakistan) in 1241 CE, they referred to the region as Šin (Sindh) and the Indus river as Šin Müren.[45][46]

Geography boundaries

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The ancient trade route of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley.

The geographical boundaries of Ancient Pakistan, or the Greater Indus region, encompass a vast region extending from the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindukush and the Pamirs in the north to the Makran coast along the Arabian Sea in the south. To the east, it includes the fertile plains along the Indus River, extending into the Thar Desert and up to the Aravalli Range, which since prehistory seperates it from the Gangetic plains. In the west, the boundaries stretch to the borders of Iran and Afghanistan, covering regions like Makran and parts of the Iranian Plateau. These boundaries are not only defined by geographical features but also by the cultural and historical interactions of ancient civilizations such as the Indus Valley Civilization, Gandhara, and Vedic cultures, and later influences from empires like the Mauryans, Greeks, Kushans, and Islamic dynasties.[47][48]

Indus bracelet made of Pleuroploca trapezium imported to Susa in (2600-1700 BCE) from Ancient Pakistan.

Ancient Pakistan has historically maintained distinct cultural, geographical, and historical characteristics compared to the Gangetic plains of South Asia. The renowned Pakistani politician and author, Aitzaz Ahsan, writes that the historical boundaries and cultural distinctions between Ancient Pakistan and the Gangetic plains have been pronounced throughout history. It is noted that only in a period of 500 years, particularly during the periods of universal empires[note 2] like the Mauryan, Mughal and British administrations, did significant cultural and administrative ties binded these regions together.[49][9]

The Indus Valley Civilization also had greater historical ties and exchanges with regions to its west, such as Mesopotamia, than with the Gangetic plains to the east. This historical interaction contributed significantly to the cultural and economic dynamics of Ancient Pakistan, emphasizing its distinct identity within the broader South Asian context. In fact, the world known to the inhabitants of ancient Pakistan was the world more to its West than to its East.[50]

Stone Age

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Wheel amulet from the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, Pakistan; the first known object to have been made using lost-wax casting-a technique.

Evidence of the earliest human presence in Pakistan dates back more than a million years. The Soan Valley, located in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Pakistan, is one of the key sites for early human activities in the Greater Indus Valley. Stone tools such as hand axes and flake tools dating back 2.2 million years found in this area indicate the presence of Homo erectus, an early human ancestor.[51]

The Paleolithic period in Pakistan is divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic phases. The Lower Paleolithic (c. 2 million - 300,000 years ago) is marked by simple stone tools found in sites like the Soan Valley and Riwat. These Acheulean tools, primarily used for hunting and processing animal carcasses, are associated with Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens. Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to have arrived in Pakistan around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, as evidenced by more sophisticated stone tools and symbolic artifacts. The Middle Paleolithic (c. 300,000 - 40,000 years ago) saw more refined tools, including flake tools and scrapers, from sites such as Sanghao Cave in the Mardan district and Kakul in the Abbottabad district. These tools suggest advanced hunting and gathering techniques by Neanderthals and early modern humans. The Upper Paleolithic (c. 40,000 - 10,000 years ago) introduced microliths and complex toolkits found in the Pabbi Hills (Punjab) and Dadu (Sindh), indicating a further advancement in technology and possibly symbolic behavior.[52][10]

A terracota figurine from Mehrgarh, Baluchistan in Pakistan.

The Mesolithic period (c. 10,000 - 8,000 years ago) represents a transitional phase with a shift towards smaller, more specialized tools such as microlithic arrowheads and grinding stones found in Rohri Hills (Sindh) and Islamabad. These artifacts point to a broad-spectrum economy with increased reliance on plant processing and smaller game hunting, suggesting a semi-nomadic lifestyle with seasonal campsites.[11][12]

The Neolithic period (c. 8,000 - 4,000 years ago) marks a major shift towards agriculture and permanent settlements. The Mehrgarh site in Balochistan is pivotal for this era, revealing early farming communities with domesticated plants and animals, mudbrick houses, storage silos, and granaries. The Early Neolithic (c. 8,000 - 6,000 years ago) at Mehrgarh is characterized by polished stone axes and flint blades, while the Late Neolithic (c. 6,000 - 4,000 years ago) shows advanced pottery, terracotta figurines, and early trade networks, reflecting complex societal structures and cultural expression. Mehrgarh in Ancient Pakistan is the earliest known site in South Asia showing evidence of farming and herding. According to Asko Parpola, a Finnish Indologist, the Mehrgarh culture migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation of the Bronze Age.[53][54]

Chronology of Stone Age in Pakistan

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Year Event Evidence
2-1.2 Million years ago Colonization by early Homo erectus. Tools crafted by them that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in Riwat and Pabbi Hills in Pathway, northern Punjab.[55][56] The pebble stones from the archaeological site of Riwat, Murree are discovered, dating back approximately 1.9 million years ago.[57]

The earliest archaeological site in the South Asia is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[58]

700-500,000 years ago Acheulean tools users Stone tools from Pabbi Hills and Wide-spread area of Sindh. Some of the earliest relics of Stone Age man have been found in the Soan Valley of the Potohar region near Rawalpindi, dating back to 500,000 BCE.[54]
250-200,000 years ago Transition from Acheulean to Middle Paleolithic Evidence from Onagar in southem Sindh. Flake tools, microliths and other chopping tools have been found in Soan Valley. Most of these tools were composed of the metamorphic quartzite rocks. The stone tool artifacts in this assemblage have been identified as a part of the second inter-pluvial period in Pakistan.[59]
200-70,000 years ago Middle Paleolithic people Tools prepared from cores in Peshawar Valley and Sindh.[59]
70-10,000 years ago Arriving of modern humans and their tools Tools from prepared cores, blades, microliths in Sindh, and Peshawar Valley, beginning of sedentary living.[59]

The archaeological site of Riwat 55 dates back to this period. It is modern form of Early Riwat Site.[60] Riwat 55 contains a structure that includes a low wall footing, a pit, and a stone-lined niche, all associated with a freshly flaked stone assemblage that included blades.[60]

10,000 years onward Sedentary living, agriculture, animal domestication, microliths, polished tools Extensive evidence from Mehrgarh and other sites in Baluchistan, surface surveys in Cholistan, Punjab.[59]

Bronze Age

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A Terracotta Ceremonial Vessel from Harappa in Punjab, Pakistan.

The Bronze Age in Pakistan, also known as the Indus Age, spans roughly from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE and is marked by the rise and flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), one of the world's earliest urban cultures. This period saw the emergence of sophisticated urban centers such as Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, as well as other significant sites like Lakhanjo-daro, Ganeriwala, and Kot Diji. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, often referred to as the twin capitals of the Harappan Civilization,[61] feature well-planned cities with advanced drainage systems, granaries, warehouses, and brick houses, indicating a high level of urban planning and municipal governance. This era in the history of Pakistan is characterized by advanced urbanization, extensive trade networks, and remarkable cultural achievements. This period is further divided into three main phases: the Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BCE), Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE), and Late Harappan Phase (1900-1300 BCE).[62]

The Early Harappan phase (3300-2600 BCE) represents the formative period of the Indus Valley Civilization, featuring early settlements that laid the groundwork for urbanization. Notable archaeological sites from this phase include Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, which continued from the Neolithic period with developments in pottery, metallurgy, and long-distance trade. Early Harappan ceramics and copper tools have been discovered here. Rehman Dheri in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the earliest urban centers with evidence of planned streets and brick structures. Kot Diji in Sindh is characterized by fortified structures and distinctive pottery styles, indicating social complexity and technological advancements.[63]

Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the foreground and the granary mound in the background.

The Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE) represents the peak of urban development, with well-planned cities such as Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, the largest city of the IVC. These cities featured advanced drainage systems, granaries, warehouses, and brick houses, indicating a high level of urban planning and municipal governance. Artifacts from this era include a variety of pottery, tools, ornaments, and seals. The seals, typically made of steatite, depict animals, human figures, and an undeciphered script (Indus script), suggesting a complex communication system. The iconic 'Dancing Girl' bronze statuette found at Mohenjo-daro exemplifies the artistry and metallurgical skill of the Indus people. Agriculture played a crucial role in the economy, with evidence of wheat, barley, peas, cotton and sesame cultivation, along with the domestication of animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. The use of irrigation and water management systems supported large-scale agriculture, which in turn facilitated urban growth.[62][64]

Harappan Burnished and Painted Clay Ovoid Vase with Round Carnelian Beads.

Trade was another vital aspect of the Indus Valley Civilization, with archaeological findings suggesting extensive networks extending to Mesopotamia, Oman, and Central Asia. Goods such as lapis lazuli, carnelian, and shells indicate both inland and maritime trade routes.[65]

The Late Harappan phase (1900-1300 BCE) signifies the gradual decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, characterized by the abandonment of major urban centers and a shift towards rural settlements. Chanhudaro in Sindh continued occupation with a focus on craft production, particularly bead-making and shell-working. Pirak in Baluchistan shows evidence of continuity in agricultural practices and the introduction of new crops like rice and sorghum. Sutkagen Dor on the Makran Coast highlights the extensive maritime trade network of the IVC with regions such as Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization remains a subject of debate among historians and archaeologists, with theories suggesting a combination of factors, including climate change, river course shifts, and possibly invasions or internal social upheavals.[66]

Indus Valley Seal with modern impression depicting a unicorn.

The Bronze Age in Pakistan is marked by significant technological and cultural advancements, including the use of copper and bronze for tools, weapons, and ornaments. The discovery of copper furnaces and smelting sites indicates advanced metallurgical techniques. Extensive trade networks linked the Indus Valley with Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf, evidenced by the presence of Indus seals and artifacts in distant regions. The development of the Indus script, still undeciphered, found on seals, pottery, and other artifacts, suggests a complex system of administration and communication. Sophisticated urban planning with grid layouts, standardized brick sizes, and advanced drainage systems reflect a high level of social organization and engineering skills.[67]

Chronology of Indus Age[68]
Major Phases Sub-Phases Time Period
Early Farming Settlements Kili Ghul Muhammad 7,000-5,000 BC
Basket-Marked Phase 5,000-4,300 BC
Developed Agricultural Villages Togau Phase 4,300-3,800 BC
Kechi Beg Phase 3,800-3,200 BC
Hakra Ware Phase 3,800-3,200 BC
Early Indus Period Amri-Nal Phase 3,200-2,800 BC
Kot Diji Phase 3,200-2,600 BC
Quetta Ware Phase 3,200-2,600 BC
Kulli Phase 3,000-2,000 BC
Harappan Period 2,600-1,700 BC
Post-Harappan Period 1,700-1,000 BC

Graphical timeline of the six cradle of civilization in the world:

MexicoViceroyalty of New SpainMesoamerican chronologyMesoamerican chronologyEpi-Olmec cultureOlmecsPeruViceroyalty of PeruInca EmpireWari EmpireCultural periods of PeruChavín cultureCultural periods of PeruNorte Chico civilizationPeople's Republic of ChinaQing dynastyMing dynastyYuan dynastyJin dynasty (1115–1234)Song dynastyTang dynastySui dynastyJin dynasty (266–420)Han dynastyQin dynastyZhou dynastyShang dynastyErlitou culturePakistanMughal EmpireMedieval PakistanMiddle kingdoms of PakistanGandharaVedic periodIndus Valley civilisationHistory of modern EgyptOttoman EgyptMedieval EgyptHistory of EgyptGreco-Roman EgyptLate Period of ancient EgyptNew KingdomMiddle Kingdom of EgyptFirst Intermediate Period of EgyptEarly Dynastic Period (Egypt)IraqOttoman IraqHistory of IraqHistory of IraqSeleucid EmpireAchaemenid EmpireBabylonThird Dynasty of UrAkkadian EmpireSumer


Timeline of the Indus Valley Civilization

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The Indus Civilization in a Larger Chronological Context[69]
Period Description
Before 7000 BC Development of postglacial hunter-gatherer communities. Mesolithic. Beginning of sedentism, arable farming, and animal husbandry in parts of the Near East and their gradual spread into adjacent regions.
7000-6000 BC Aceramic Neolithic.[a] Farming community established at Mehrgarh (period I). Near East: beginning of pottery making and metallurgy, Turkmenia: farming communities by 6000.
6000-5000 BC Aceramic and Ceramic Neolithic.[b] Granaries constructed at Mehrgarh; trade links as far as Turkmenia. Beginning of potter making at Mehrgarh (Mehrgarh II). Possibly additional farming settlements in Baluchistan such as Kili Ghul Mohammad, Farming communities in Iranian plateau and Turkmenia.
5000-4300 BC Neolithic.[c] Farming settlements in Baluchistan, pottery, small-scale irrigation, copper smelting. Hunter-gatherers of lowlands acquiring domestic animals.
4300-3800 BC Chalcolithic.[d] Many farming settlements in Baluchistan; wheel-turned pottery; glazed steatite, copper casting, some immigrants to the Indus plains from Baluch highland.
3800-3200 BC Chalcolithic. Kechi Beg (Baluchistan). Hakra (Ghaggar-Hakra plains). Ravi (3300-2800). Increasing number of farming settlements in Baluchistan, some large, pastoralist camps established in the plains, especially Cholistan; Harappa founded; local hunter-fisher gatherer communities keeping some domestic animals and making pottery (3300-2800).
3200-2600 BC Early Harappan: Amri-Nal (Sindh, S. Baluchistan); Kot Diji (Punjab, N.Baluchistan); Damb Sadaat (Baluchistan); Indus culture diffuses into Baluchistan: bunds and other irrigation works constructed. Spread of farming communities into Gujarat and the Indo-Gangetic divide; walls and flood defenses. Some towns including Harappa, Mehrgarh, and Rehman Dheri; uninscribed stamp seals; protoscript at Harappa; some specialization. Hunter-Gatherers and pastoral communities in northern Gujarat. Mesopotamia: city-states emerging in Sumer and Elam; Sumerian and proto-Elamite scripts, trade networks across Iranian plateau flourishing. Fishing communities in Oman and Makran probably in contact.
2600-2500 BC Transition period (Harappa phase 3A, 2600-2450). Many settlements in the plains destroyed or abandoned, some rebuilt, many new settlements founded, probably including Mohenjo-daro; cultural integration; growing craft specialization; emergence of writing. Mesopotamia: Royal Cemetery at Ur ca. 2600-2450 includes Harappan material; Namazga V-VI culture in Turkmenia.
2500-2000 BC Mature Harappan (Harappa phase 3B 2450-2200; 3C 2200-1900). Cultural unity in Indus plains; separate but related Kulli culture in southern Baluchistan; separate Late Kot Diji culture in north-western Pakistan; well integrated internal distribution network; external trade with western neighbors, Gulf and northern Afghanistan where Shortugai is founded; towns and cities, writing; craft specialization and industrial villages. Sea trade: with Umm-an Nar culture in Oman and with Dilmun (Bahrain); Mesopotamia; Akkadian Empire; city-states. Ur III empire: trading with Harappans, some Harappans resident there; Helmand culture in Seistan no longer trading with Indus and declining after 2200; Namazga V-VI culture in Turkmenia, declining from 2200; BMAC established in Northern Afghanistan.
2000-1900 BC Late Harappan (Harappa Phase 3C to 1900). Decline in many towns and cities, especially in Sindh and Cholistan; introduction of African millets; summer cultivation of rice and millets increasingly important. OCP/Copper Hoards culture in India, Northern Neolithic in Kashmir, Gandhara Grave culture in Swat (Pakistan). Isin-Larsa period in Mesopotamia: Harappan trade now through Dilmun; relations with Wadi Suq culture in Oman still flourishing.
1900/1800 BC The end of the Urban culture in the Indus Valley, disintegration of Indus polity; abandonment of most urban centers in Sindh, Kutch, Makran, and Cholistan; strong regional cultures in Gujarat, interacting with neighbors to south and west, in eastern region, expanding into Ganges-Yamuna doab, and in Kachi plain, destruction and abandonment of settlements in Baluchistan. Post-Harappan cultures in the Greater Indus Valley. OCP/Copper Hoards culture in India, Northern Neolithic in Kashmir, Gandhara Grave culture in Swat. Mesopotamia no longer trading through Gulf; BMAC abandoning northern Afghanistan, but settled in Seistan and in contact with Indus region and beyond.

Transition from Late Bronze Age to Iron Age

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The extent of the Swat (Gandhara Grave) and Cemetery H cultures shown within the map of Indus region.
Cultures of the Late Harappan Phase in Ancient Pakistan (1900-1300 BCE)

The transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Ancient Pakistan marks a period of significant cultural, technological, and social changes across the region. This era encompasses the coexistence and transformation of several distinct cultures, including the Cemetery H Culture and the Gandhara Grave Culture, and witnesses the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).[70][71]

Cemetery H Culture

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The Cemetery H Culture flourished in the Punjab region from around 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE. It is regarded as a regional variant of the Late Harappan phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, alongside the Jhukar culture of Sindh. It is named after a cemetery found in "Area H" at Harappa. Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. This culture represented a shift from the urbanized patterns of the earlier Harappan civilization to more localized settlements and cultural practices. According to the archaeologist, Mohammad Rafique Mughal, the Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley civilization around 1700 BCE, being part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases that developed in the Localization Era or "Late Harappan phase" of the Indus Valley Tradition.[72] According to Kenoyer, the Cemetery H culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past."[73] According to Kennedy and Mallory & Adams, the Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.[74][75]

The distinguishing features of this culture include:[76]

  • The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the "grave skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous.[77]
  • Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
  • Expansion of settlements into the east.
  • Rice became a main crop.
  • Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.
  • Continued use of mud brick for building.

Jhukar Culture

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Terracotta boat in the shape of a bull, and female figurines. Kot Diji period (c. 2800–2600 BC), Ancient Pakistan.

The Jhukar culture of Sindh in Ancient Pakistan was a phase of the Late Harappan culture in that continued after the decline of the mature Indus Valley civilisation in the 2nd millennium BC. It was contemporaneous with the Cemetery H culture of Punjab and shares similarities with it in terms of pottery styles and cultural developments. The Jhukar phase is named after the archaeological site called Jhukar in Sindh, Pakistan.[78] This phase, in turn, was followed by the Jhangar phase. Jhukar and Jhangar phases are collectively also called Jhukar and Jhangar culture (1900 - 1500 BCE).[79]

The Jhukar culture, like other late Harappan cultures, witnessed changes in urban planning, trade networks, and possibly climatic shifts, contributing to its eventual decline by around 1300 BCE. The pottery of this phase is described as "showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions."[80] During this phase, urban features of cities (such as Mohenjo-Daro) disappeared, and artifacts such as stone weights and female figurines became rare. This phase is characterized by some circular stamp seals with geometric designs, although lacking the Indus script which characterized the preceding phase of the civilization. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions. There was also a decline in long-distance trade.[81]

Gandhara Grave Culture

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Cremation Urn with Lid from Swat Valley, Pakistan, Gandhara Grave Culture, circa 1200 B.C.

The Gandhara Grave Culture of Ancient Pakistan, predominantly found in the middle Swat River valley and surrounding regions, represents a significant protohistoric period from approximately 1200 BCE to 800 BCE.[82] The Italian Archaeological Mission to Pakistan (MAIP) holds that there are no burials with these features after 800 BCE.[83] More recent studies by Pakistani scholars, such as Muhammad Zahir, consider that these protohistoric graves extended over a much wider geography and continued in existence from the 8th century BCE until the historic period.[84] This culture was characterized by its distinctive burial practices. The core of the Gandhara Grave Culture was situated in the middle Swat River valley, extending into neighboring valleys such as Dir, Kunar, Chitral, and Peshawar.[84] Archaeological evidence reveals more than thirty cemeteries associated with this culture, featuring characteristic cist graves lined with large stone slabs, covered by flat stones to form a roof. These graveyards served as focal points for elaborate burial rituals and the deposition of grave goods, reflecting the social complexity of the communities in Ancient Pakistan during this period.[85]

The Gandhara Grave Culture is distinguished by its burial practices, which evolved over time. Early phases (c. 1400-1100 BCE) primarily featured single burials with bronze objects and pottery, including Burnished Grey Ware and Burnished Red Ware. The pottery often includes simple dot designs, while terracotta figurines of humans are also common grave goods.[86]

In later phases (c. 1000-800 BCE), the burial traditions became more elaborate, incorporating cremation urns adorned with human-like face designs. These urns were placed in circular pits along with bronze, gold objects, and pottery, indicative of a flourishing artistic and metallurgical tradition. The introduction of iron technology during this period marks a significant technological advancement, concurrent with the emergence of urban centers like Taxila and Charsadda in the Gandhara region.[87]

Scholars debate the origins and cultural affiliations of the Gandhara Grave Culture. Some suggest it may be linked to the Indo-Aryan migrations into the Subcontinent, as evidenced by cultural similarities with the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) and the Cemetery H Culture of Punjab.[88] Others argue for local cultural continuity, emphasizing connections with earlier Bronze Age cultures of the Greater Indus Valley. Its burial traditions and artistic achievements laid the foundation for subsequent cultural developments in the region, including the integration of Indo-Aryan elements with indigenous cultures, shaping the early historical and archaeological landscape of the South Asia.[71]

Chronology Table
Period Culture/Phase Timeframe (BCE) Key Features
Late Harappan Cemetery H Culture c. 1900 – 1300 Cremation burials, painted pottery, eastward expansion, rice cultivation[89]
Late Harappan Jhukar Culture c. 1800 – 1300 Distinct pottery styles, local adaptations, regional variant of Harappan phase[90]
Protohistoric Gandhara Grave Culture c. 1200 – 800 Inhumation burials, terracotta figurines, iron technology, burial traditions in Swat and surrounding regions[91]

Timeline

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Cast of the Priest King of Mohenjo-daro, original kept in the National Museum of Pakistan, Islamabad.

Following is the timeline of history of Pakistan from the Prehistoric times until the medieval period. It covers the different cultures, groups, civilizations, kingdoms and empires that existed during that time in Ancient Pakistan:

Stone Age:

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  • Riwat culture (c. 2,000,000 BCE – 1,000,000 BCE)
  • Soanian culture (c. 500,000 – 250,000 BCE)

Neolithic:

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Statue of Greek goddess Athena in the Gandharan style from Ancient Pakistan, in the Lahore Museum.

Bronze Age:

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  • Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE)
    • Cemetery H culture (c. 1900 –1300 BCE)
    • Jhukar and Jhangar culture (1900 – 1500 BCE)
    • Rangpur culture (c. 1900 –1300 BCE)
  • Gandhara Civilization (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 CE)
  • Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE)
  • Painted Grey Ware culture (c. 1200 or 700–300 BCE)
  • Achaemenid Empire (c. 550 – c. 330 BCE)
    • Gedrosia (c. 542 – c. 330 BCE)
    • Gandhara (c. 518 – c. 330 BCE)
    • Arachosia (c. 518 – c. 330 BCE)
    • Hindush (c. 517 – c. 330 BCE)
    • Sattagydia (c. 516 – c. 330 BCE)
  • Ror dynasty (c. 489 – c. 450 BCE)
  • Macedonian Empire (c. 329 – c. 323 BCE)
    • Arachosia (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
    • Gedrosia (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
    • Paropamisadae (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
    • Porus (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
    • Taxiles (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
  • Mauryan Empire (c. 322 – c. 200 BCE)
  • Seleucid Empire (c. 312 – c. 63 BCE)
  • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (c. 190 – c. 140 BCE)
  • Indo-Greek Kingdom (c. 170 – c. 50 BCE)
  • Indo-Scythian Kingdom (c. 110 BCE – c. 95 CE)
    • Apracharajas (c. 25 BCE – c. 50 CE)
    • Paratarajas (c. 120 – c. 300 CE)
A stone palette of the Indo-Scythian style found in the Early Saka layer at Sirkap, in Gandhara, Pakistan.

Classical Pakistan:

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Notes

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  1. ↑ The Greater Indus Valley, encompassing the fertile plains and river systems of the Indus River and its tributaries, is recognized as a cradle of civilizations, a distinct geographical region, and a historically rich cultural area. It has been home to several ancient civilizations, including the Harappan Civilization, Vedic Civilization and the Gandhara Civilization.[5]
  2. ↑ The term is applied to the three empires that almost encompassed the entire subcontinent spanning Indus and Gangetic. The concept of the universal state based on slavery, with its high-point in the Mauryan empire, had itself sown the seeds of the feudal order many centuries earlier. The two subsequent 'universal states' encompassing the entire subcontinent, would, in turn, be the high points, respectively, of feudalism (the Mughal Empire), and of imperial capitalism (the British Empire).
  1. ↑ Gregory Possehl's Kili Ghul Mohammad phase
  2. ↑ Gregory Possehl's Kili Ghul Mohammad phase
  3. ↑ Possehl's Burj Basket-marked phase
  4. ↑ Possehl's Togau phase

References

[change | change source]
  1. ↑ McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
  2. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-15). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization. Amazon. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6. ...archaeologists often call the whole area the Greater Indus Region or the Greater Indus Valley. Thus, Ancient Pakistan is essentially the Greater Indus Valley; it is more a cultural and geographic unit than a political one.
  3. ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2. The Greater Indus region is the easternmost portion of a large cultural and natural area of antiquity, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Thar Desert ...
  4. ↑ Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan: Archaeology and Architecture. Ferozsons. ISBN 978-969-0-01350-7.
  5. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-15). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization. Amazon. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
  6. ↑ Paracha, Nadeem F. (2017-02-02). "Pakistan: The lesser-known histories of an ancient land". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Ancient Pakistan". Embassy of Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Athens, Greece.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Ancient Pakistan. Chairman, Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar. 2002.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-05-29). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume I: The Stone Age. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-4954-9047-7.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Oldest Tools Outside Africa Found, Rewriting Human Story". Science. 2018-07-11. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Salim, Muhammad (2006). "Palaeolithic Cultures of Pakistan". Lower Palaeolithic in the Soan Valley, Rawalpindi, Pakistan – via University of Peshawar.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Dennell, R.W.; Rendell, H.; Hailwood, E. (1988). "Early tool-making in Asia: two-million-year-old artefacts in Pakistan". Antiquity. 62 (234): 98–106. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00073555. ISSN 0003-598X.
  13. ↑ Ali, Zakeriya. "ANCIENT HISTORY OF PAKISTAN". www.thenews.com.pk. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  14. ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.
  15. ↑ British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developed by the Harappan civilization" Photograph of the necklace in question
  16. ↑ "Ancient Pakistan Civilization Remains Shrouded in Mystery". Voice of America. 2010-07-20. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  17. ↑ Meister, Michael W. (2010-07-26), "Temples of the Indus: Studies in the Hindu Architecture of Ancient Pakistan", Temples of the Indus, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-19011-5, retrieved 2024-04-13
  18. ↑ Wheeler, Mortimer (1968-09-02). The Indus Civilization. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-06958-8.
  19. ↑ Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982-07-29). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6.
  20. ↑ Ahmed, Shoaib (2021-10-06). "'All Vedas of Hinduism were written in Lahore'". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  21. ↑ Jairazbhoy, Rafique Ali (1995). Foreign Influence in Ancient Indo-Pakistan. Sind Book House. ISBN 978-969-8281-00-7.
  22. ↑ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4.
  23. ↑ "Gandhara | Buddhist Art, Greco-Buddhist, Taxila | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-03-15. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  24. ↑ "Gandhara". asiasociety.org.
  25. ↑ "Gandhara Civilization". International Research Journal Commerce Arts Science.
  26. ↑ National History & Literary Heritage Division (2016). "Pakistan's Heritage: Glorious Gandhara" (PDF). Life Story of Buddha Etched in Stone – via National History and Literary Heritage Division, Government of Pakistan.
  27. ↑ Samad, Rafi U. (2011). The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-87586-858-5.
  28. ↑ Singh, Amardeep (2016). Lost Heritage: The Sikh Legacy in Pakistan. Nagaara Trust. ISBN 978-81-7002-115-5.
  29. ↑ Toppa, Sabrina. "Sikhs mark Guru Nanak's 550th birth anniversary in Pakistan". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  30. ↑ California State University, Long Beach. "Hinduism". home.csulb.edu. Retrieved 2024-04-14. The birthplace of Hinduism is Indus River Valley which runs through northwest India into Pakistan. The Indus Valley civilization, or "Harappan civilization" originated sometime around 4,500-5,000 B.C.E. and reached its zenith between 2300 to 2000 BC.
  31. ↑ "Art of Gandhara: Buddhas and Bodhisattvas". asiasociey.org. Retrieved 13 April 2024. Many of the concepts characteristic of Mahayana Buddhism—the form of Buddhism which later spread widely across East Asia—appear to have developed in Gandhara.
  32. ↑ "Remembering Pakistan's Buddhist past | The Express Tribune". tribune.com.pk. 2022-06-11. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  33. ↑ "Padmasambhava | Tibetan Buddhism, Guru Rinpoche, 8th Century | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-04-01. Retrieved 2024-04-14. The founder of Tibetan Buddhism, Padmasambhava was from the Oddiyana region of Pakistan.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.
  35. ↑ "Indus". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
  36. ↑ Post, The Jakarta. "India-Indonesia: Allies on a journey of (mutual re)discovery - Opinion". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
  37. ↑ "Susa, Statue of Darius - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
  38. ↑ 余よ太山たいざん著ちょ (2021-07-01). A STUDY OF MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19038-1. The "Xi'nanyi liezhuan 西南せいなん夷えびす列傳れつでん" of Shiji 史記しき(ch. 116) records that there was a state of Shendu 身み毒どく to the west of Qiong at a distance of about 2,000 li里さと. The "Dayuan liezhuan 大だい宛あて列傳れつでん" of Shiji 史記しき (ch.123) records that the state of Shendu 身み 毒どく"lies several thousands of li里さと southeast of Daxia 大だい夏なつ....and the state borders on a large river". The "large river" is a reference to the Indus, and so it seems that Shendu 身み毒どく specifically refers to the Indus Valley.
  39. ↑ Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath (2001). Nationhood and Statehood in India: A Historical Survey. Regency Publications. ISBN 978-81-87498-26-1.
  40. ↑ Henning, Walter Bruno (1970). W. B. Henning Memorial Volume. Lund Humphries. ISBN 978-0-85331-255-0.
  41. ↑ Virdee, Pippa (2021). Pakistan: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884707-6.
  42. ↑ Thakur, Pradeep (2012-01-06). Vikram & the Vampire (Improvised ed.). Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-105-42303-1.
  43. ↑ Nizam, Muhammad Huzaifa (2023-01-15). "HOW THE INDUS VALLEY FED ISLAM'S GOLDEN AGE". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
  44. ↑ RAHMAN, KOÇYİĞİT, Zabihur, Tahsin (2018). "EARLY MUSLIM RELATIONS WITH INDUS VALLEY AND THE EXPEDITIONS DURING THE GUIDED CALIPHATE PERIOD". DEUİFD XLVII/2018, ss. 323-346.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ↑ Rachewiltz, Igor de (2022-11-07). The Secret History of the Mongols: Volume 2. BRILL. p. 943. ISBN 978-90-04-53175-8.
  46. ↑ Gilmour, James. Among the Mongols. Boston University School of Theology. London, Religious Tract Society.
  47. ↑ Ahsan, Aitzaz (1997). The Indus Saga and the Making of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195776935. Retrieved 2024-07-15. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  48. ↑ Wheeler, R. E. M. (1950). Five thousand years of Pakistan.
  49. ↑ Ahsan, Aitzaz (2005-08-01). The Indus Saga. Roli Books Private Limited. ISBN 978-93-5194-073-9. During the last six thousand years Indus has, indeed, remained independent of and separate from India for almost 5,500 years. Only the three 'Universal States those of the Mauryans, the Mughals, and the British welded these two regions together in single empires. And the aggregate period of these 'Universal States' was not more than five hundred years.
  50. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-15). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization. Amazon. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
  51. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-05-29). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume I: The Stone Age. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4954-9047-7.
  52. ↑ Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1963). "Prehistoric Pakistan". Asian Perspectives. 7 (1/2): 183–188. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42929008.
  53. ↑ "The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and The Indus Civilization". global.oup.com. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-15). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
  55. ↑ "Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan". Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2007.
  56. ↑ Murray, Tim (1999). Time and archaeology. London; New York: Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-415-11762-3.
  57. ↑ Rendell, H. and Dennell, R.W. 1987 Thermoluminescence Dating of an Upper Pleistocene Site, Northern Pakistan. Geoarchaeology 2, 63-67.
  58. ↑ Rendell, H. R.; Dennell, R. W.; Halim, M. (1989). Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan. British Archaeological Reports International Series. Cambridge University Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-86054-691-7. OCLC 29222688.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-15). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Dennell, Robin W.; Rendell, Helen M.; Halim, Mohammad; Moth, Eddie (1992). "A 45,000-Year-Old Open-Air Paleolithic Site at Riwat, Northern Pakistan". Journal of Field Archaeology. 19 (1): 17–33. doi:10.2307/530366. ISSN 0093-4690. JSTOR 530366.
  61. ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.
  63. ↑ River, Charles (2019-11-29). Harappa: The History of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization's Most Famous City. Amazon Digital Services LLC - Kdp. ISBN 978-1-7133-0400-5.
  64. ↑ Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982-07-29). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6.
  65. ↑ Williams, Brenda; Williams, Brian; Binns, Tristan Boyer (2015-02-12). All about Trading in the Indus Valley. Raintree Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4062-8586-4.
  66. ↑ Wheeler, Mortimer (1968-09-02). The Indus Civilization. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-06958-8.
  67. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-18). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume IV: Harappan Civilization - Theoretical and the Abstract. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4960-8208-4.
  68. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture. Amazon. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.
  69. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture. Amazon. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.
  70. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume V: The End of the Harappan Civilization, and the Aftermath. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4997-0982-7.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Olivieri, Luca M., Roberto Micheli, Massimo Vidale, and Muhammad Zahir, (2019). 'Late Bronze - Iron Age Swat Protohistoric Graves (Gandhara Grave Culture), Swat Valley, Pakistan (n-99)', in Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al., "Supplementary Materials for the formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", Science 365 (6 September 2019), pp. 137–164.
  72. ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2024-07-17.
  73. ↑ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and western India". Journal of World Prehistory. 5 (4): 331–385. doi:10.1007/BF00978474. ISSN 0892-7537.
  74. ↑ Kennedy, Kenneth (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. doi:10.3998/mpub.16180. ISBN 978-0-472-11013-1.
  75. ↑ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London ; Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 103, 310. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
  76. ↑ "Cemetery H Culture (circa 1900 - 1300 B.C.)". 2009-10-30. Archived from the original on 2009-10-30. Retrieved 2024-07-17.
  77. ↑ Allchin, F. R.; Sarkar, S. S. (1966). "Ancient Races of Baluchistan, Panjab and Sind". Man. 1 (1): 111. doi:10.2307/2795925. ISSN 0025-1496. JSTOR 2795925.
  78. ↑ Langer, William L. (William Leonard) (1972). An encyclopedia of world history : ancient, medieval, and modern : chronologically arranged. Internet Archive. Boston : Houghton Mifflin Cmpany. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-395-13592-1.
  79. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  80. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  81. ↑ J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots" in the Making of ‘the Aryan’, R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.
  82. ↑ Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). "The early-historic funerary monuments of Butkara IV. New evidence on a forgotten excavation in outer Gandhara", in: Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Università di Roma, Pisa-Roma, p. 231: "[T]he Swat Protohistoric Graveyards complex (henceforth: SPG), {was] first published by Chiara Silvi Antonini and Giorgio Stacul (1972). More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE (Vidale, Micheli and Olivieri 2016; Narasimhan et al. 2019)."
  83. ↑ Olivieri, Luca Maria (2019-01-01). "The early-historic funerary monuments of Butkara IV. New evidence on a forgotten excavation in outer Gandhara". Rivista degli Studi Orientali.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Zahir, Muhammad (2022-01-01). "The Distribution and Contextualization of Protohistoric and Historic Cemeteries around Singoor Village, Chitral, Pakistan". Journal of Asian Civilizations.
  85. ↑ Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015-08-31). The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 290, 293. ISBN 978-0-521-84697-4.
  86. ↑ Coningham, Robin, and Mark Manuel, (2008). "Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier", Asia, South, in Deborah M. Pearsall (ed.), Encyclopedia of Archaeology, Elsevier, p. 740: "...A homogenous tradition of burial practices with associated ceramic and artifact assemblages, it appears to have emerged in the upper Indus Valley...and then spread across the Valleys of Swat, Dir and Chitral, and into the Vale of Peshawar..."
  87. ↑ Olivieri, Luca Maria, (2022). "The Archaeology of Gandhāra", in: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 2022, Oxford University Press, Summary: "...Toward the end of the 2nd millennium, northern Gandhāra features a rather coherent settlement phenomenon marked by large graveyards, mainly with inhumations, which were labeled by previous scholarship as the 'Gandhāra Grave Culture' (1200–900 BCE). In this phase among the major cultural markers, the introduction of iron technology is noteworthy..."
  88. ↑ Parpola, Asko (1993), "Margiana and the Aryan Problem", International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin 19:41-62
  89. ↑ Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (July 29, 1982). "The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan". Cambridge University Press – via Google Books.
  90. ↑ Langer, William L., ed. (1972). An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 17. ISBN 0-395-13592-3.
  91. ↑ Zahir, Muhammad, (2017). "The Geographical Distribution of Gandhara Grave Culture or Protohistoric Cemeteries in Northern and North-Western South Asia", Gandharan Studies, Vol. 10, pp. 1-30.
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