Feminist theology seeks to speak of God without writing sexism into the sky on a divine scale.
Many Christian traditions imagine God to be male, solely because so many human societies privilege men over women. Many Christian theologies and rules grant men a fuller participation than women in the life of the church, restricting women to a lesser role. Feminist theology intentionally works against the sexism of these traditions. Some feminist theologians remain within their home traditions, seeking to change them from the inside; others either move to less sexist Christian traditions or abandon the church altogether, while continuing to write and pray and study, often creating exilic or parachurch communities among themselves.
As with many other theologians who study the use of power in society, feminist theologians argue that every theology has a gender politics, whether it is stated or not. Every piece of theological writing makes gendered assumptions. To bring gender questions into theology is nothing new.
There are many kinds of feminist theologians. They come from many countries, many languages, many classes and many ethnic backgrounds. Some hold academic posts and some focus on advocacy, and many do both. Some are strongly orthodox, endorsing all the traditional doctrines even as they re-interpret them with a feminist lens (Elizabeth Stuart, Jacquelyn Grant, Serene Jones). Some argue that sexism has twisted the traditional doctrines beyond recognition, so that feminist theology’s task is to restore the true Christian tradition (Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Mary McClintock Fulkerson). Some present the traditional doctrines using more woman-centered metaphors that may be new, or so old as to be nearly forgotten (Elizabeth Johnson, Sallie McFague). Some find the traditional doctrines to be themselves oppressive, and seek to open up Christian practices to include more liberating practices from other traditions (Carter Heyward, Mary Daly). Some are engaged in critical dialogue with liberation theology (Elsa Tamez, Marcella Althaus-Reid). Some have gone back to Near Eastern archaeology and Biblical studies to discover an egalitarian Christian tradition that predated the sexist traditions (Rosemary Radford Ruether, Elizabeth Schuessler Fiorenza, Luise Schottroff).
The intellectual history of feminist theology in the United States roughly parallels that of secular feminist thought. A First Wave emerged together with the abolitionist movement and continued through the struggle for women’s suffrage. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Seneca Falls collective produced The Woman’s Bible, a Bible with creative storytelling and scathing anti-sexist commentary, in 1895. The goals of the First Wave had mainly to do with opening up the “man’s world” to women’s participation. A Second Wave sprang from the civil rights movement, women’s discussions around abortion and contraception in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the nascent gay and lesbian movement, and the book The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan. Voices from this period of the movement ranged from the relatively conservative National Organization for Women (Friedan’s organization) to radical collectives of lesbian separatists. While equality was still a goal (notably, women’s enfranchisement in the white-collar workforce) feminist thinkers, including feminist theologians, began to question more loudly the social structures themselves that in overt and subtle ways make women into second-class citizens. In the 1980s and early 1990s a Third Wave burst into life once the academic establishment was forced to recognize that white North American women cannot speak for all women everywhere. The highly influential book This Bridge Called My Back, edited by Gloria Anzaldua and Cherrie Moraga, together with the work of Audre Lorde and Alice Walker, sparked intense conversations between women of different races, cultural backgrounds, and sexualities in the United States that have transformed feminist theology. White professional women had to be educated about the vast differences in experience between women of different backgrounds; for example, poor women have always worked, and do not need to spend time fighting Feminine Mystique-style pressure to be cosseted/overworked housewives. Certain new terms were proposed by feminists of different backgrounds: “womanist” by women focused on African-American women’s experiences (“womanist” is a term from Alice Walker’s work), and “mujerista” by Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, a Cuban-American theologian. While “womanist” found more traction among theologians than “mujerista” did, many African-American women still prefer the term “feminist.” Meanwhile, today the landscape has changed, and “feminist” is no longer as white a term as it was in 1985.
Feminist theology and praxis have always gone together. It is not enough for feminist theologians to talk about changing the world; they are usually directly involved in attempts to change it. Feminist theologians work in many different arenas of advocacy, some directly focused on gender and some emphasizing other issues with a feminist critique.
Feminist theologians are often concerned about these other areas of theological discourse that relate to feminist inquiry about gender and power inequality:
– gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer experiences and critiques
– ecology
– colonization and post-colonial work
– the church’s response to abuse and trauma
– class inequality
– racism
– lack of communication between women of different races, languages and countries
– non-hierarchical, collective work and decision-making
A few good books for those who would like to know more about feminist theology, from a diversity of viewpoints:
Feminist Theory and Christian Theology by Serene Jones
Sexism and God-Talk by Rosemary Radford Ruether
White Woman’s Christ and Black Woman’s Jesus by Jacquelyn Grant
Journeys by Heart by Rita Nakashima Brock
In Memory of Her by Elizabeth Schuessler Fiorenza
Beyond God the Father by Mary Daly
Daughters of Anowa by Mercy Amba Oduyoye
Powers and Submissions by Sarah Coakley
Struggle to Be the Sun Again by Chung Hyun Kyung
Just Good Friends by Elizabeth Stuart
Fierce Tenderness by Mary Hunt
Touching Our Strength by Carter Heyward
Texts of Terror by Phyllis Trible
Reformed and Feminist by Johanna Wijk-Bos
A few secular books that have had a pronounced impact on feminist theology:
This Bridge Called My Back edited by Gloria Anzaldua and Cherrie Moraga
Sister Outsider by Audre Lorde
Gender Trouble by Judith Butler
The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan
The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir
This introduction contributed by Heather W. Reichgott
To suggest other books, ask questions, or add your thoughts, please leave a comment below.
Voices of Sophia 
I’m interested to know whether anyone has some insight into Canadian women’s feminist ideas, which I heard referred to as Ecofeminism, bringing together a concern for ecology and feminism. Can anyone tell me how this fits in the feminist experience in North America?
Hi Peggy Howland,
I don’t know of anyone specifically in Canada, but a number of feminists have written on ecofeminism. The best book of ecofeminist theology I know of is Gaia and God by Rosemary Radford Ruether. Ruether has worked quite a bit with U.C. Berkeley historian of science Carolyn Merchant (author of The Death of Nature). Sallie McFague also wrote a good book called The Body of God.
Both Ruether and McFague see the natural world as in some way part of God’s existence. That can be a little confusing since at first it’s kind of startling (I thought, “what? the world is not the same thing as the incarnate God!”) but both theologians like to make claims like that as metaphorical language, meant to make people think, not meant to be taken literally.
I’ve also heard the names Anne Primavesi, Ruth Page and Mary Grey in connection with ecofeminist theology but am not familiar with their work. My colleague Wandahilin Kharlukhi is working on ecofeminist theology for her Ph.D., from her perspective in Presbyterian tribal communities in North India, and I eagerly await reading her work in the future.
How does ecofeminism fit into the feminist experience in North America? I hope others can weigh in on this too; I think that at least in the realm of theology, ecofeminism is meant to articulate a Christian reverence for the earth that’s much stronger than so many Christian views of creation that suggest the earth was entrusted to us, so we can do with it what we like–without going off the edge of Christianity into neo-paganism. However, I’m not sure Christian feminists would have started writing on ecofeminism at all if not for the emergence of neo-pagan Goddess worship in the 70s around the same time that people really began to realize humans were capable of creating environmental crisis.
One important philosophical issue involved is how and whether to connect women with nature. Plenty of Western philosophers associated men with rationality/spirituality, and women with physical nature, because women’s sphere was supposed to be childbearing and food and sex, and men were supposed to handle all the mentally and spiritually taxing activities. Some feminists respond to that by saying women and men are not so different after all; others respond by saying yes, women are more strongly connected to the natural world than men are, and that’s a good thing. Ruether is interesting because she talks back to the sexist assumptions that claim women and nature can both be used as natural resources to produce things for the benefit of their ‘owners’.
Hope that helps; and I hope others will share what they know.
Heather
Feminist theology is contradict to the biblical. There is no Woman’s God’s Word. Feminist theology has developed from the perspective of Feminist philosophy, Feminist theology doesn’t have any origin before the Feminist philosophy has occurred. God does not say that Women are inferior than men, but says to have “Submission”. The reason have started of this Feminist theology is the women thinks that men are not giving proper role and status or rights to exercise in every areas. As God created male and female differently in sex/gender, its/their work/responsibilities and rights or position are also different. Feminist theology becoming Gender issue. I personally cannot agree on Feminist theology as christian man, but i can consider in another way Feminist philosophy in non-christianity concept.
Prof. M.K. Koshilning Maring (M. Th in Rel. & Phil; Ph. D in Rel.)
Thanks for a great article. I’m familiar with our foremothers in feminist theology–as a theology teacher in a girl’s high school, I’m wondering who the younger theologians are who are continuing the work. Thanks!
PJ
i believe that you people are doing a better job be course women needs sepecial attention but i will all post that why do we have to design a special theology for wemen though the answer may not e far fech may be due to weman discrimination in some religion and culture meanwhile is this actually effective on to the kind of maltreatment that most wemen go through especial the widow should we have a special theological design for them? base on st Paul view to the widow in epistle?
How do I cite this work in an academic paper?
Hi E,
Thanks for your interest. To cite this work in an academic paper, you can use this format for web page citations. The first two are MLA style and the third is APA style, just in case your professors are particular about using one or the other.
Please be sure you are using the correct author’s name. Articles on this page come from many different authors. The regular articles usually have the author’s name right up top with the title. This introduction to feminist theology is by me, Heather W. Reichgott (the byline is at the bottom.)
MLA style:
Harris, Robert. “Evaluating Internet Research Sources.” VirtualSalt. 15 June 2008. Web. 20 Apr. 2009.
In the example above, the first date is the date of the page itself, while the second date is the date you accessed (read or printed) the page.
MLA style with URL:
Harris, Robert. “Evaluating Internet Research Sources.” VirtualSalt. 15 June 2008. Web. 20 Apr. 2009. .
APA style:
Harris, R. (2010, November 22). Evaluating Internet research sources. Retrieved from http://www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm
cheers, Heather
Oops, the MLA style with URL should include the URL (the web address starting with http) after the second date. WordPress removed it from my comment for some reason. Heather
Wrote my thesis on the feminine view of deity to combine it with friendliness!
Good read I always enjoy good readings especially when they are researched and presented properly as my thoughts flow through life, thinking of the things that are going on in the world I appreciate a good read on such activities has my thoughts concur with life’s agendas. My exact thoughts on the situation and the occurrence of life’s feminist and theology I think we should just stay under one God one Lord and one baptism it is possible while men are changing the names and words everyday to confuse those who are less fortunate or educated to follow the system and being left behind to figure out on their own what is actually going on before it’s too late there’s an old saying that the strong do survive. But I believe as a race a human race of people that we should not leave others behind and that we should come into unity and on one Accord and believing that we are all here one for another as in the beginning of creation and not believe that one is greater than the other meanwhile the wheat and the tare grow together meaning the good and the bad will grow together the flowers and the weeds grow together until the Harvest We Are All God’s Children he is of no Pacific jinda we are not to be concerned as to male or female property authority over another above or beneath we all belong to God…….. I dislike when people or hate when people try and broaden the picture bigger then it is and then they get confused, we can only speak for ourselves sometime we have followers and are leading them the wrong way because we ourselves don’t know and are just guessing many writers? Trying to survive the rat race but are needing to get in line for broad is the way that leads to destruction and narrow is the way through the gate to Salvation. Man or woman truth is truth God’s word is truth St John 17:17 let’s just stick to what God Called It his name and everything else in his word is what he says it is and not what we think it is, there is no second-guessing God he too is the writer of his own story and it is what He says it is….. be kind one to another love one another and the peace of God which surpasses all understanding will bring our hearts under the submission of God and not our own. Thank you for a good read.