 Meiji (1852-1912), emperor of Japan (1867-1912), born Prince Mutsuhito and the 122nd emperor in the traditional count, whose accession to the throne marked the beginning of a national revolution known as the Meiji Restoration.
In 1868, soon after Prince Mutsuhito became emperor, taking the name Meiji ("enlightened government"), radical nationalist groups working for a stronger Japan united under the emperor, and toppled the Tokugawa shogunate, replacing it with a unified administration headed by the sovereign. As part of the new regime's policies, Meiji became the first emperor to live in Tokyo rather than Kyoto, the traditional imperial capital. Although the emperor in time became an influential force in the government, he functioned mainly as a symbol of national unity, leaving the actual business of governing to his ministers. His presence was essential to the new government as a source of legitimacy, as a sanction for its transformation of Japan, and as the centre of the authoritarian cult of State Shinto which it introduced. During his reign, Japan became an industrial power able to compete with the nations of the West. The Meiji shrine in the centre of Tokyo was built in his honour.One of Japan's most famous emperor, Mutsuhito supervised the modernization and Westernization of Japan, in what would bring the country from feudal backwaters to world superpower. Mutsuhito received the posthumous name of Meiji, meaning "enlightened rule".
Born just eight months before commodore Matthew Perry and his black ships came to ask the opening of Japan to foreign trade, the future emperor Meiji was not originally destined to reign. Son of Emperor Komei and the lady-in-waiting Nakayama Yoshiko, he received the title of Sachi no miya (Prince Sachi). Not until his adoption in July 1860 by Asako Nyogo (later Empress Dowager Eisho), the principal consort of Emperor Komei, was he made officially Crown Prince (Kotaishi) and Imperial Prince (Shinno).
After the Satsuma and Choshu rebellion, 15-year old Mutsuhito was to ascend the throne as the monarch of the newly established Meiji government (see Meiji Restoration).
Emperor Meiji's role in the states affairs remained limited, as he delegated most of his power to a group of oligarchs known as the genro (elderly statesmen), such as Ito Hirobumi or Yamagata Aritomo.
- The Last Shogun
The Teenage Emperor Meiji Restoration The Role of Emperor Meiji Banzai for Nippon Meiji Period The Meiji Program of Economic Development The Meiji shrine
The Last Shogun
The Japanese emperors had been powerless since the ninth century AD. In 1192 Yoritomo, the head of the powerful Minamato clan became the first Shogun of Japan. The shugunate was a system of military leadership that ended in 1868 when the last Shogun, Yoshinobu from the Tokugawa family was forced to resign. The Tokugawa clan had ruled Japan since 1603.
During the Tokugawa rule Japan was completely isolated from outside. No Japanese was allowed to leave the country and no foreigners were allowed to enter Japan. Trade with the outside world was only permitted with the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch were restricted to the small island enclave of Deshima in Nagasaki Harbor off the shore of Japan.
Things changed drastically when a US fleet of iron ships under commander Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794-1858) anchored in the bay of Tokyo in 1853 and again in 1854 and forced Japan to open its borders in the Treaty of Kanagawa.
In the aftermath of the forced opening it came to unrest and civil war clashes between the Tokugawa shogunate and its opponents led by the Satsuma, Choshu and other powerful family clans. The opponents of the shogunate were adamantly opposed to the opening of Japan to foreigners. The position of the Tokugawa rule was additionally weakened by a terrible economic depression with hyper inflation and famine caused by crop failures.
The Teenage Emperor
The forces opposed to the Tokugawa shogunate rallied around Emperor Komei. The emperor had his imperial residence  for centuries in Kyoto. In January of 1868 the troops of the shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu advanced towards Kyoto. But they were defeated in the battle of Toba and had to retreat to Edo (Tokyo). The battle cry of the victorious forces of the Satsuma and Choshu samurai warriors was sonno joi - respect the emperor and expel the barbarians.
On May 15, 1868, a last uprise of the shogunate forces took place at the site of today's Ueno park in Tokyo. Two thousand adherents of the old Tokugawa order were devastatingly crushed by imperial troops under the leadership of Saigo Takamori, the head of the Satsuma forces, in the bloody battle of Ueno.
Prince Mutsuhito, only 15 years old, had ascended to the throne in 1867 as the 122nd emperor of Japan and took the title Meiji, meaning the enlightened ruler. The young emperor moved his permanent residence from Kyoto to Tokyo. All edicts were issued in his name, although the real power was with the men surrounding him - mainly the Satsuma and Choshu clans. Meiji Restoration
The funny thing was that the xenophobia of the victorious forces around the emperor changed from one day to another into the opposite - an attitude of embracing everything foreign with open arms. Sonno joi was replaced by bummei kaika - civilization and enlightenment.
The Japanese nation went on a tour de force to become a modern nation modeled after Western powers. One statesman of the Meiji government, Ito Hirobumi, became a major driving force in the Westernization of Japan. He was a man of humble origins, but became the most influential person of the Meiji until his assassination in 1909.
The process of Westernization tackled with utmost energy. Delegations for all fields of science and technology were sent out to Europe and the United States to study foreign political, economic, administrational and cultural systems. Thousands of young Japanese students were sent abroad to attend Western universities. At the same time thousands of foreign engineers, scientists and teachers were called into the country.
The Japanese pursued Westernization and industrialization so thoroughly that Japan was in danger of throwing its own cultural heritage over board. Ironically it was a handful of influential foreigners working at Japanese universities like Ernest Fenellosa (1853-1908) who convinced the Japanese to preserve their rich traditions.
Today historians think that the events in China were a major driving forces behind the great effort of Japan to become an equal member among Western states. China, for centuries the superior schoolmaster of Japan, was weak during the second half of the nineteenth century. Thus China was forced to make territorial and economical concessions to the big Western powers like England during the period of Western imperialism. The term refers to both the events of 1868 that led to the “restoration” of power to the emperor and the entire period of revolutionary changes that coincided with the Meiji emperor’s reign (1868–1912). The power of the Tokugawa shogunate, weakened by debt and internal division, had declined, and much opposition had built up in the early 19th cent. The intrusion of Western powers, particularly the Americans under Admiral Matthew C. Perry, precipitated further discontent. Under pressure, the Tokugawa shogunate submitted (1854) to foreign demands and signed treaties that ended Japan’s isolation. The powerful Choshu and Satsuma domains of W Japan tried to resist the foreigners on their own and were defeated (1863). These domains, excluded from the Tokugawa governing councils because of their status as tozama, or outside daimyo, then demanded creation of a new government loyal to the emperor to expel the foreigners. In Jan., 1868, samurai from these domains, with the support of anti-Tokugawa court nobles, succeeded in a palace coup that abolished the shogunate and “returned” power to the emperor. The court was moved from Kyoto to Tokyo, where a centralized administration was created. The new Meiji government moved quickly to discard the feudal system and launch a series of reforms that profoundly changed Japanese society. These reform programs—administrative, economic, social, legal, educational, and military—were carried out under the slogan “fukoku Kyohei” (enrich the country and strengthen the military). The government adopted many policies designed to create a modern economy and society. Students were sent to Europe and the United States to study modern science and technology, while foreign experts were hired to help establish factories and educational institutions. In 1889 the Meiji Constitution was adopted. In the late Meiji years, Japan won the Sino–Japanese war in 1895, defeated Russia in 1905, abolished the treaties with the West, and became a world power. The Role of Emperor Meiji
Emperor Meiji had only a representational role in the Westernization of Japan. Nevertheless his support of it was  paramount. The rural population revered the institution of the emperor as a god-like character. Thus everything he did, was swiftly copied and adopted - like for instance wearing Western clothes.
Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Haruko, were continuously on representational duties. The emperor had been brought up with the awareness that his foremost duty was to serve his country. He and the empress played the role of a modern Western family leading the country on its way to 'civilization and enlightenment'. One of the major concerns of the emperor was general education. During his rule an obligatory school system was introduced.
In spite of the permanent presence of the imperial couple for all kinds of occasions like opening of a new iron bridge or a railway line, little leaked out about his private life. Interviews done after Meiji's death in 1912 with some of the men that surrounded him, revealed either trivialities or contradictory statements. The only source that could give an intimate view into his soul, are the poems written by himself. They are called Gyosai and reveal a rather sensitive man.
Banzai for Nippon
In 1894/1895 the Japanese achieved an easy victory against China in the Sino-Japanese war. The conflict had broken out over Japan's quest to take control of Korea. Ten years later in 1904/1905 the Japanese forces defeated the Russian fleet and army. The dispute was over Manchuria. Both wars were won because of the superior technology of the Japanese armed forces.
The Western world was astonished. Japan had developed within less than 30 years from a feudal country into the preeminent Asian power.
On July 30 of 1912, Emperor Meiji died. His son Yoshihito followed his father to the throne. With him the Meiji era ended officially and the Taisho era began.
Meiji Period
In 1867/68, the Tokugawa era found an end in the Meiji Restoration. The emperor Meiji was moved from Kyoto to Tokyo which became the new  capital; his imperial power was restored. The actual political power was transferred from the Tokugawa Bakufu into the hands of a small group of nobles and former samurai.
Like other subjugated Asian nations, the Japanese were forced to sign unequal treaties with Western powers. These treaties granted the Westerners one-sided economical and legal advantages in Japan. In order to regain independence from the Europeans and Americans and establish herself as a respected nation in the world, Meiji Japan was determined to close the gap to the Western powers economically and militarily. Drastic reforms were carried out in practically all areas.
The new government aimed to make Japan a democratic state with equality among all its people. The boundaries between the social classes of Tokugawa Japan were gradually broken down. Consequently, the samurai were the big losers of those social reforms since they lost all their privileges. The reforms also included the establishment of human rights such as religious freedom in 1873.
In order to stabilize the new government, the former feudal lords (daimyo) had to return all their lands to the emperor. This was achieved already in 1870 and followed by the restructuring of the country in prefectures.
The education system was reformed after the French and later after the German system. Among those reforms was the introduction of compulsory education.
After about one to two decades of intensive westernization, a revival of conservative and nationalistic feelings took place: principles of Confucianism and Shinto including the worship of the emperor were increasingly emphasized and taught at educational institutions.
Catching up on the military sector was, of course, a high priority for Japan in an era of European and American imperialism. Universal conscription was introduced, and a new army modelled after the Prussian force, and a navy after the British one were established.
In order to transform the agrarian economy of Tokugawa Japan into a developed industrial one, many Japanese scholars were sent abroad to study Western science and languages, while foreign experts taught in Japan. The transportation and communication networks were improved by means of large governmental investments. The government also directly supported the prospering of businesses and industries, especially the large and powerful family businesses called zaibatsu.
The large expenditures led to a financial crisis in the middle of the 1880's which was followed by a reform of the currency system and the establishment of the Bank of Japan. The textile industry grew fastest and remained the largest Japanese industry until WW2. Work conditions in the early factories were very bad, but developing socialist and liberal movements were soon suppressed by the ruling clique.
On the political sector, Japan received its first European style constitution in 1889. A parliament, the Diet was established while the emperor kept sovereignty: he stood at the top of the army, navy, executive and legislative power. The ruling clique, however, kept on holding the actual power, and the able and intelligent emperor Meiji agreed with most of their actions. Political parties did not yet gain real power due to the lack of unity among their members.
Conflicts of interests in Korea between China and Japan led to the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95. Japan defeated China, received Taiwan, but was forced by Russia, France and Germany to return other territories. The so called Triple Intervention caused the Japanese army and navy to intensify their rearmament.
New conflicts of interests in Korea and Manchuria, this time between Russia and Japan, led to the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-05. The Japanese army also won this war gaining territory and finally some international respect. Japan further increased her influence on Korea and annexed her completely in 1910. In Japan, the war successes caused nationalism to increase even more, and other Asian nations also started to develop national self confidence.
In 1912 emperor Meiji died, and the era of the ruling clique of elder statesmen (genro) was about to end. The Meiji Program of Economic Development
The Meiji Era leaders sought economic development as a concomidant of strengthening Japan, but circumstances allowed them very little policy choice. The first problem to be solved was financing the national government budget. In 1871 the national government in Tokyo assumed the debts of the domains which accepted its rule. The national government also assumed responsibility for the stipends paid to the samurai. The samurai class lost its source of livelihood in the land reforms and the creation of the conscription army of commoners. Although the revolution was called a restoration of the Emperor, what it was more fundamentally was an overthrow of the seven hundred-year rule by the warrior class of samurai. The samurai warriors accepted their displacement in return for a stipend. The aggregate magnitude of the samurai stipend was enourmous and requried one third of the revenue of the national government. Under this burden the national government substituted fixed interest bonds for the stipends. Later, with the excessiv creation of money, prices went up and the real value of the samurai's bonds declined. The inflation benefited the farmers whose land tax was at fixed monetary levels. They gained at the expense of the samurai and the city dwellers. Samurai rebellions in such places as Satsuma led to the creation of money to finance the suppression of these rebellions, which in turn led to inflation and a decline in the real income of the samurai and more dissatisfaction among the samurai.
Matsukata Masayoshi of Satsuma was the Minister of Finance over a ten year period. He sought to protect Japanese industry from foreign competition, but was restricted by the unequal treaties. The unavailability of standard protectionist devices probably benefited Japan in the long run. Had Japan been able to fully shield its infant import-substitution industries from foreign competition Japan would likely not have developed its export industries.
The national government tried at first to create government industry to produce particular products or services. The lack of funds forced the government to turn these industries over to private business which in return for special privileges would accomodate the government's goals. This was the origin of the zaibatsu system. An example of this is the rise of Mitsubishi. A semi-government shipping company was reluctant to to send its ships into military zones to provide troop transport. Mitsubishi provided troop transport for the national government's military expeditions and in return received the ships from the bankrupt semi-government shipping line. Mitsubishi was granted special privileges which enabled it to prosper and grow.
The national government created some programs, such as public education, by declaring that it must be done and leaving it to the villages to finance and arrange for its provision.
Matsukata was aided in his rise to the office of the Minister of Finance by Okubo Toshimichi.
While some samurai leaders expressed their dissatisfaction with the situation by rebellion others such as Itagaki petitioned for representative government.
It was not easy for Japanese businesses to find markets where they could compete successfully against European and American firms. In many cases Japanese businesses captured markets simply by selling at a loss. This strategy could not prevail without some source of financial subsidy. One industry in which Japanese businesses did compete successfully at a profit was the silk industry. At just about the time that Japanese silk producers wanted to enter the international market for silk there had been a failure of the silk industry in Italy.
The failure of the Italian supply of silk resulted in higher prices for silk that was ususally the case and this higher price enabled the Japanese silk producers to make a profit. The available statistics for the Meiji period do document the success. The Meiji shrine
 The Meiji Jing? is the most popular shint? shrine in the view of the Japanese because it is dedicated to the Meiji emperor (1852-1912) and to his wife, the empress Sh?ken (1850-1914).
Although the Meiji emperor's mortal remains are buried in Ky?to, his soul is enshrined in the Meiji jingu.
 The Japanese are deeply grateful to the imperial couple to have led the country from 1868 to the industrial and technological modernity on the model of the Occident.
The shrine's construction was completed in 1920 thanks to the work of more than 100000 volunteers.
Alas it was destroyed in 1945 by the US air force...
It is only in 1958 that it was completely rebuilt at the image of the original.
Since, each year, on the new year's celebrations' occasion, more than 3 millions and half visitors come to offer the shrine money and to renew their wishes of longevity and prosperity for the new year.
The park surrounding the shrine includes a dense forest of trees offered by admirers from all the regions of the japanese archipelago. In June, the irises' flowering in the shrine's inner garden, designed by the Meiji emperor himself, is an enchantement for the eyes...
- The Last Shogun
- The Teenage Emperor
- Meiji Restoration
- The Role of Emperor Meiji
- Banzai for Nippon
- Meiji Period
- The Meiji Program of Economic Development
- The Meiji shrine
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