Home > Modern History > International Studies in Peace and Conflict > Conflict in Indochina 1954-1979 > Indochina 1954 - 1979 - Cambodia
Geoff Lewis
Kelso High School
From this tutorial you will learn about:
The history of Cambodia is one of the most tragic in recent times. The gentle Khmers have suffered invasion, civil war, genocide, poverty, political and economic instability and corruption.
Cambodia is a nation of 181,000 square kilometres with an estimated population of about 8 million. It lies in the Indochina region between Vietnam, Laos and Thailand and is divided into three main geographic areas: the low plains of the centre and south across which rivers, including the Mekong, flow; a chain of low but inhospitable mountain ranges along the border with Thailand; and a high forested plateau in the south-west and north-west. The centre is dominated by the huge lake of Tonle Sap.
Traditionally its history has featured long imperial struggles with Vietnam and Thailand; Buddhism, which has been influenced by Indian rather than Chinese tradition; from the fifteenth century rule by a series of Khmer god-kings, centred at Angkor Wat and based on organised utilisation of water for irrigation; a predominantly peasant (over 90%) population.
During the nineteenth century European nations extended their influence and control over Asia as part of worldwide imperialist expansion. Indochina, initially a French sphere of influence, was colonised as the need for products of the region became more important to the industrialised economies of Western Europe.
In 1863 Cambodia became a French "Protectorate". The French restored the Norodom monarchy as the Khmers sought French help to expel the Vietnamese and Thai invaders. This opened the way for exploitation by the French, just as in Vietnam. In 1884 Cambodia became a French colony. Three years later it became part of a unified political unit with Vietnam, called the "Indochinese Union".
French occupation and exploitation continued until the Second World War when the Japanese invaded and occupied the whole of Indochina. On 25 April 1941 Prince Norodom Sihanouk, then aged 18, was crowned King of Cambodia, but in reality power lay with the Japanese. On 12 March 1945, just before the end of the war, Sihanouk proclaimed Cambodian independence of France, but upon the capitulation of Japan, French paratroops reoccupied the capital city, Phnom Penh.
About six months later the Khmer Issarak, anti-French Free Khmer nationalist groups, were formed to fight for Khmer independence. This was not the first nationalist movement. In the 1930s a small nationalist movement among students had aimed to overthrow the French and restore an independent Khmer monarchy. In 1942 the groups under Son Ngoc Thanh attempted a coup.
Following Sihanouk's 1945 proclamation, Thanh staged a second coup but was arrested and exiled to France. Upon the French return some concessions were made to the Khmers, and Cambodia became an "autonomous state" within the so-called French Indochinese Union.
In response Issarak, still small, began to resort to an armed nationalist struggle against the French. Elections for a Constitutional Assembly were held in 1946 and a new constitution was drawn up. In the following year general elections were called and Issarak and the Thanh Party made the most gains. This caused some alarm among the French and Sihanouk, and a long period of political instability began.
The main countries of Indochina, Vietnam and Cambodia, have much in common. There has been a long history of imperial conflict between the two peoples. They both suffered French colonialism. Both are essentially Buddhist in belief.
Following Japanese occupation in the Second World War and a war for independence, Vietnam was divided under the terms of the Geneva Accords where the Kingdom of Cambodia was created with Prince Norodom Sihanouk as head-of-state. Taking a greater role in politics than a twentieth-century monarch might be expected to, Sihanouk was at great pains to keep his nation out of the war in Vietnam by following a path of "non-alignment" or "neutrality".
However, his objectives were not to be met. His own quixotic character and brinkmanship politics failed. At various times he antagonised his neighbours, the US, China and the Soviet Union. His nation was dragged into the Vietnam War, bombed by the US and invaded by the Vietnamese.
He was also confronted by an emerging communist movement which had long and close links with Ho Chi Minh's Vietminh and its antecedents. To a significant extent Sihanouk and others in Cambodia underestimated the communist threat.
The communists in Cambodia were in many ways quite unlike those in Vietnam. Ho and his party were very well known. Their aim of a united and independent Vietnam was well publicised. The Khmer Rouge– as Sihanouk dubbed the Cambodian communists– was always a shadowy organisation, even when they came to power between 1975 and 1979. The Khmer Rouge (KR) leadership, Pol Pot (Saloth Sar), Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary and Khieu Samphan, launched and carried out their struggle from positions of anonymity. They were obsessed with secrecy. Even Pol Pot's brother did not realise his true identity until, by chance, he saw a rare photo in Kampuchea in 1977!
When the corrupt republic led by Lon Nol and Sirik Matak finally fell to the KR in April 1975, Democratic Kampuchea, a Stalinist-Maoist state, emerged as one of the most brutal of the last 200 years. The horrors of the period can scarcely be imagined by Australians. I suggest that you try to read at least one of the first-hand accounts of life under "Angka" such as Dith Pran (ed.), Children of the Killing Fields or the recently released First They Killed My Father by Loung Ung.
Cambodia was largely able to remain outside the First Indochina War between the French and Viet Minh. Sihanouk began his long policy of neutrality.
Australia accorded recognition to the semi-sovereign state of Cambodia and began to send aid under the Colombo Plan in 1950.
However, just as was to happen later, Cambodia was dragged into the wider conflict in Vietnam. The Viet Minh began actively to encourage the nationalist elements in the Issarak who controlled large areas of the countryside. Ironically there was a strong element of anti-communism in the Issarak. These links were formalised in March 1951 when the Khmer Issarak joined the Lao Itsala and Viet Minh in an alliance against French colonialism.
In the same year the Cambodian Communist Party (Khmer People's Revolutionary Party) was formed when the Indochinese Communist Party divided into three: Vietnamese, Khmer and Lao. At the same time a more shadowy revolutionary group of Khmer communists was formed among Khmer students living in France. Included among this group were Saloth Sar (Pol Pot), Khieu Samphan and Ieng Sary.
The results of the 1951 election caused alarm among the French as they sensed that Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh, who were engaged in a war against them in Vietnam, would have undue influence on a nationalist/independence movement in Cambodia.
Sihanouk abolished the Assembly and aligned himself with the Cambodian military under the command of General Lon Nol. This led to a roundup of "opponents" who were accused of following the orders of Ho Chi Minh.
Sihanouk, in one of his many changes of policy direction, embarked on a so-called "Royal Crusade for Independence". As a result a deal was made with Sihanouk which gave Cambodia "independence" on 9 November 1953.
Meanwhile, events outside were to influence events in Cambodia. On 7 May 1954 the Viet Minh, under the command of General Vo Nguyen Giap, defeated the French at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. This was to have repercussions across Indochina. Following this defeat, the Geneva Conference was held to decide the future of Indochina, concluding on 7 May. The French were removed from Vietnam and Laos. At the same time Cambodian independence was formally recognised. In addition the Viet Minh were asked to withdraw all their forces from Cambodia.
Unlike its neighbours, Cambodia did not have a communist revolution in 1954, partly because Sihanouk promised free and open government and there was an almost medieval tradition that rebellion against the monarchy was unthinkable.
Elections which followed the Geneva Conventions swung political power to the right as Lon Nol and the military-backed party came to power in a government that was basically a constitutional monarchy.
Again the quixotic Sihanouk changed political direction. On 2 March 1955 he abdicated as king so that he could play a more important and active role in politics. Now known as Prince Sihanouk, he tried to follow a strictly neutralist policy for his country.
His motives were genuine, but he was unable to control forces outside Cambodia, and his nation was dragged into disputes not of its own making. For example, in 1956 Sihanouk rejected membership of Southeast Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO), seeing that it would violate neutrality. The US and Thailand imposed an economic blockade on Cambodia, and the Americans covertly supported anti-Sihanouk forces inside Cambodia.
Since 1955 Cambodian political instability has meant that there have been five different governments:
As the war in Vietnam expanded, Sihanouk tried to steer a path of neutrality. He ruled over one of the most prosperous states of the region as a medieval benevolent ruler. At the same time communist insurgency began to emerge.
Such was his determination to remain, and be seen as, neutral that Sihanouk accepted aid from the United States, China, France and the Soviet Union. There were some major achievements, including the expansion and improvement of education which created an educated, largely urban youth removed from traditional culture. The downside was an oversupply of qualified semi-professionals in a declining labour market. His disastrous attempt to nationalise foreign trade and banking, with other economic problems, provided fertile ground for the communists.
In May 1963 the future leaders of the Khmer Rouge, Ieng Sary, Son Sen and Saloth Sar (Pol Pot), left Phnom Penh for the countryside. Rural Cambodia was to become the centre of Khmer Rouge operations for the next twenty years.
This occurred at the same time as Sihanouk terminated US aid, making living conditions in the country even worse. Thus from 1963 Sihanouk's political fortunes began to wane due to:
Examples of the external problems which affected Cambodia and Sihanouk's desire to remain neutral are:
As the Vietnam War escalated, Sihanouk struggled to maintain neutrality, but the economy declined and he lost control of the domestic situation. He ordered violent suppression of opposition, which alienated the peasantry even further and forced many into the arms of the Khmer Rouge.
American historian Ben Kiernan in How Pol Pot Came to Power describes how Sihanouk's behaviour became increasingly frivolous, but he retained the support of most of his people.
Throughout 1967–69 the communist insurgency increased; Sihanouk made a secret deal with the Americans to bomb Khmer Rouge positions, believing erroneously that they were backed by the North Vietnamese. For his part Ho was content to allow Sihanouk to remain in control so long as he did not interfere with the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
The bombing of the trail forced the Vietnamese to move further into Cambodia. A struggle for control of the eastern provinces broke out between the Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese. Sihanouk could no nothing. In another twist Sihanouk reopened relations with the Americans in June 1969 and reversed other domestic policies.
In January 1970 Sihanouk left Cambodia for a holiday and for medical treatment. While he was away, his Prime Minister Lon Nol and the military removed him in a coup in March. The new Lon Nol Government was particularly hostile to the Vietnamese.
Meanwhile, Sihanouk lived in Beijing, campaigning on behalf of the Khmer Rouge. Both actions were to have repercussions as Cambodia fell more and more into the orbit of China in the growing ideological split between the People's Republic and the Soviet Union, which also involved Vietnam. Sihanouk became tainted with the excesses and genocide of the Khmer Rouge regime.
The aim of the Lon Nol Government was to get rid of the "communist menace" from Cambodia. To do this, Lon Nol had to obtain the support of the Americans and South Vietnamese. All pretence of neutrality disappeared.
In 1971 he launched a series of "Chenla" operations to reconquer the rural areas for the government. Cambodia was on the verge of civil war. By 1972 the US State Department estimated that over 2 million Khmers were made homeless by Lon Nol's campaigns.
Sihanouk tried to organise domestic opposition to Lon Nol, and in March 1972 embarked on an extraordinary tour of rural Cambodia.
Rice shortages and rising food prices led to riots in Phnom Penh as the government became increasingly brutal and repressive. The anti-Vietnam stance of the government resulted in several massacres of Vietnamese living in Cambodia (many were fifth generation).
On 30 April 1970 US and South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) forces invaded Cambodia and attacked the Khmer Rouge forces now led by Pol Pot. By now the Cambodian military were running the government. Spending on the army was double the Cambodian annual income, and so it was dependent on US aid worth $1.95 billion between 1970 and 1975.
In February 1973 B52 and F111 bombing of Cambodia recommenced but was blocked by Congress the first time that it had voted to undercut a military action on which the President (Nixon) had insisted. A later compromise in June saw the bombing recommenced until August. Between 8 February and 15 August the US carpet bombed 257,465 tonnes of ordinance on Cambodia. The effect was to drive more and more people into the Khmer Rouge camp.
In Vietnam President Nixon had instituted his "Vietnamisation" of the war. More and more of the fighting was handed over to the ARVN and US troops were being withdrawn. The withdrawal of these troops was to have a profound effect on events in Cambodia.
Now free of any real threat of US intervention, and despite secret US bombing and backed by China, Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge opened a series of offensives against the Lon Nol Government. Beginning in the dry season January 1974, an attack was launched on the north-west perimeter of Phnom Penh, supported by massive Khmer Rouge inspired demonstrations in the capital.
The civil war in the countryside led to widespread loss of life and a massive influx of refugees into Phnom Penh. Gradually the Khmer Rouge increased control in rural Cambodia. The dislocation and destruction, and Pol Pot's anti-Vietnamese policies, drove many into the ranks of the Khmer Rouge. Pol Pot was able to play on the traditional enmity between Khmer and Vietnamese.
On 1 January 1975 the Khmer Rouge launched its final offensive on Phnom Penh. The tactics were simple: effectively blockade the Mekong River, preventing supplies of food, fuel and ammunition from reaching besieged Phnom Penh, while at the same time launching a series of rocket attacks on the city designed to undermine civilian morale. Both were successful, and the Khmer Rouge strangled Phnom Penh (as seen in the David Putnam film The Killing Fields).
On 1 April Lon Nol fled Cambodia for Indonesia then Hawaii. On 12 April the Khmer Rouge occupied Phnom Penh and the remnants of the Lon Nol regime capitulated. On the same day the last of the US citizens and diplomatic staff left the roof of the embassy. On 17 April ironically the Australian Government accorded recognition to the revolutionary government in Phnom Penh, not knowing what the future held. On 30 April Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese.
Sihanouk returned home, only to be put under house arrest by the Khmer Rouge and trotted out as a propaganda weapon to gain international support. Foreign powers were not quite finished with Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge seized the US container ship Mayaguez in Cambodian territorial waters in May. In response the Americans bombed the country's only oil refinery. Fighting between the new Cambodian government and Vietnam broke out over border disputes and offshore islands. This fighting was to continue sporadically for the next four years.
Little did the Khmers or the world know what was ahead. In terms of brutality, terror, genocide and strict adherence to an ideology, the government of Pol Pot compares with those of Stalinist Russia and Nazi Germany. It is estimated that over two million people were liquidated by the Khmer Rouge.
The first action of the new government was to evacuate Phnom Penh of its entire population and transfer them to forced labour camps in rural areas. All references to previous governments and the past were abolished as Pol Pot decreed that the nation was to return to "Year Zero", the first year of the revolution. Moves were begun to expel the entire Vietnamese population.
These activities were based on the ideas of Khieu Samphan, first published in a university thesis, that:
Thus by 1979, for example, the number of Western-trained doctors declined from over 2500 to two. Those people who wore spectacles or whose "hands were too soft" or who were "suspect" in any way could be tortured and killed in the "killing fields".
The Khmer Rouge established a strange body which combined the government at all levels, a political philosophy and a social and economic system called "Angkar" the "higher organisation" from which all orders had to be carried out. The shadowy Angkar hid the activities and name of Pol Pot. It was not until 1977 that he declared himself leader of Democratic Kampuchea and of the Kampuchean Communist Party.
Throughout 1976 the Khmer Rouge consolidated its power. In January Cambodia became officially known as Democratic Kampuchea with a new constitution. In April Sihanouk resigned as head of state, and Khieu Samphan was elected Chairman of the State Presidium. Pol Pot was careful to establish diplomatic relations with most of his neighbours. His regime held Cambodia's seat in the United Nations, thus giving it international recognition and legitimacy.
In 1977 relations between Democratic Kampuchea and Vietnam began to turn sour. An attempted coup in February was alleged to have had Vietnamese backing. The purges against those suspected of being involved intensified. On 31 December Radio Phnom Penh announced that diplomatic relations with Hanoi were suspended. Border fighting, especially in the so-called "Parrot"s Beak" area, became more intense. Vietnam, which was still isolated and economically blockaded by the US, successfully attempted to portray this fighting as the responsibility of the Khmers.
In 1978 the relations between Democratic Kampuchea and Vietnam had further international implications. Vietnam signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR (also dragging Laos into the conflict), while Kampuchea moved more and more under the influence of China. As the two communist giants drifted further apart, the nations of Indochina found themselves involved in this ideological dispute.
On 25 December 1978 the escalating conflict between Democratic Kampuchea and Vietnam came to a head when troops of the Socialist Republic invaded Kampuchea along a wide front in the east.
The reasons for this invasion have never been made quite clear and have been lost in the propaganda war. Publicly Hanoi stated that the invasion was to save the Khmers from the genocide of the Khmer Rouge. In addition the Vietnamese were becoming tired of the frequent attacks and killing of their people along the border less than 100 kilometres from Saigon. Probably over 50,000 innocent Vietnamese were killed by marauding Khmer Rouge. Right seems to have been on the Vietnamese side.
In any event the Khmer Rouge forces quickly retreated before the Vietnamese invaders, and on 7 January 1979 Phnom Penh was "liberated". Pol Pot and his murderous regime retreated to prearranged bases along the Thai-Cambodian border, where they have remained. The Vietnamese installed a puppet government the KPLNF under Sonn San in April 1980. At the same time China invaded northern Vietnam in a short but bloody war (see section on Vietnam).
