The Role of Viral Infections in the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Immune Tolerance
3. Inflammation-Induced AID
4. Viral Mechanisms Causing AID
4.1. Epitope Spreading
4.2. Molecular Mimicry
4.3. Bystander Activation
5. Rheumatoid Arthritis
Autoimmune Disease | Virus | Target Cells or Self-Peptides | Immune Cells or Cytokines | Pathomechanism | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rheumatoid Arthritis | HTLV | Synovial cells | IL1, IL6, TNF- | Autonomous proliferation of synovial cells and inflammation | [163,164,165] |
EBV | Collagen and keratin | Autoreactive T cells | Molecular mimicry | [166,167,168] | |
Multiple Sclerosis | Herpes simplex virus (HSV1, HSV2) | Peripheral sensory nerves, sensory ganglia in CNS | Cytotoxic T lymphocyte, IL-6 | Molecular mimicry of HSV-1 glycoprotein gB epitope and a brain-specific factor | [169,170] |
Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) | CNS, myelin basic protein (MBP), anoctamin 2, glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM) | CD4+ and CD8+ T cells | Antibodies against EBV antigens viral capsid antigen (VCA), Epstein–Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1), and early antigen (EA), Epstein–Barr latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), molecular mimicry | [127,171,172,173,174,175,176] | |
Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) | Oligodendrocyte, MBP | T cells | Molecular mimicry of virus peptide U24 with MBP | [177,178,179] | |
Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) | Ganglia in CNS, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) | CD4+ and CD8+ T cells | - | [180] | |
Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) | CNS in white matter lesion, (PBMCs) | TNF- | Induction of free radicals, ER stress | [169,170,181,182] | |
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus | EBV | B- and epithelial cells; autoantibodies: SmB and Ro60 | EBV-specific T cells | Molecular mimicry | [183,184,185] |
Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 | Coxsackie B4 | GAD65 in the beta-cells of pancreas | IFN- | Molecular mimicry | [186] |
Rubella | GAD65/67 of the pancreatic islets | CD4+ and CD8+ T cells | Molecular mimicry | [187,188] | |
Rotavirus | Tyrosine phosphatase IA-2 | Type I IFN | Molecular mimicry and Bystander activation | [189,190] | |
Cytomegalovirus | GAD65 | GAD65 specific T-cells | Molecular mimicry | [191] |
6. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
7. Multiple Sclerosis
8. Diabetes Mellitus Type 1
9. SARS-CoV-2 and AIDs
10. Outlook
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AIDs | Autoimmune diseases |
AIRE | Autoimmune regulator |
APCs | Antigen presenting cells |
BBB | Blood brain barrier |
CMV | Cytomegalovirus |
CNS | Central nervous system |
cTECs | Cortical thymic epithelial cells |
CTL | Cytotoxic T lymphocytes |
DAMPs | Damage-associated molecular patterns |
DCs | Dendritic cells |
DMT1 | Diabetes mellitus type 1 |
EBV | Epstein–Barr virus |
ER | Endoplasmic reticulum |
Fezf2 | Fez family zinc finger protein 2 |
HERV | Human endogenous retrovirus |
HHV | Human herpesvirus |
HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus |
HSV | Herpes simplex virus |
IFN | Interferon |
IL | Interleukin |
MHC | Major histocompatibility complex |
MS | Multiple sclerosis |
mTECs | Medullary thymic epithelial cells |
NF-k | Nuclear factor kappa- |
NK | Natural killer |
PAMPs | Pathogen associated molecular patterns |
RA | Rheumatoid arthritis |
SLE | Systemic lupus erythematosus |
T1D | Type 1 diabetes |
TCR | T-cell receptor |
TECs | Thymic epithelial cells |
TF | Transcription factor |
TNF | Tumor necrosis factor |
TRAs | Tissue restricted antigens |
Tregs | Regulatory T cells |
VZV | Varicella-zoster virus |
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Sundaresan, B.; Shirafkan, F.; Ripperger, K.; Rattay, K. The Role of Viral Infections in the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases. Viruses 2023, 15, 782. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030782
Sundaresan B, Shirafkan F, Ripperger K, Rattay K. The Role of Viral Infections in the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases. Viruses. 2023; 15(3):782. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030782
Chicago/Turabian StyleSundaresan, Bhargavi, Fatemeh Shirafkan, Kevin Ripperger, and Kristin Rattay. 2023. "The Role of Viral Infections in the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases" Viruses 15, no. 3: 782. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030782