semuren 色目いろめ人じん

Semu 色目いろめ or semuren 色目いろめ人じん, literally "people of separate categories", was a Yuan-period 元もと (1279-1368) designation for persons of Central and Western Asia (including Europeans). The word is a general term without further distinguishing between sub-categories of these types of foreigners. The word semu was first used in the Tang Code Tanglü shuyi 唐から律りつ疏議 with the meaning "many separate categories", but the expression is probably a Chinese rendering of the Mongol term qari irgen "foreigners, strangers" in a dualistic system that just separated between Mongols and non-Mongols, while the four-classes system (sidengren zhi 四よん等とう人じん制せい) was perhaps its application to the political situation in China. Hu (2013) analysed the use of the word semu before the Yuan period and found out that from the early Song period on, the expression semuren was used for persons with extraordinary family names, the so-called "various (i.e. irregular) family names" (zaxing 雜ざつ姓せい). The Japanese scholar Funada Yoshiyuki 船田ふなだ善之よしゆき (1999) had found out that a Mongolian analogue of the Chinese expression semuren did not exist, nor did foreign accounts like Rašīd ad-Dīn's (1247-1348) book Ǧāmiʿ at-tawārīḫ (Ch. Shiji 史ふみ集しゅう) nor Marco Polo's (1254-1324) Divisament du Monde (The Travels of Marco Polo) mention the four social classes or a distinct and coherent class of "Central Asians" (semuren). Analysis of household registers of the time and their classification rather demonstrated that the category semuren included Mongols, Buddhist Uyghurs (Weiwu'er 畏かしこ兀兒), Kitans, "Muslims" (Huihui 回かい回かい) and Chinese from Hexi 河西かさい altogether, with no ethnic segregation. Funada concludes that the concept of semuren is Chinese, and not Mongolian.

The contemporary author Tao Zongyi 陶すえ宗そう儀ただし (1329-1410), author of Nancun chuogeng lu 南村なんそん輟耕錄ろく, holds that there were 31 types of Semuren, while the historian Qian Daxin 錢ぜに大だい昕 (1728-1804), writing his Yuanshi shizu biao 元げん史ふみ氏し族ぞく表ひょう much later, speaks of 23 categories. The problem with these numbers is that the Mongols did never clearly and consequently discern between various ethnic groups.

The most important groups of Semuren were Tanguts (Tangwu 唐から兀), Naiman 乃蠻, Önggüds (Wanggu 汪ひろし古いにしえ, Yonggudai 雍古歹), Muslim Uyghurs (Huihui), Buddhist Uyghurs, Qangli (Kangli 康やすし里さと), Kipchaks (Qincha 欽察), Alans (Asu 阿おもね速そく), Qarluqs (Halalu 哈剌魯, Geluolu 葛かずら邏祿), Tibetans (Tubo 吐蕃, Tubote 土ど伯はく特とく), Tuvans (Tuba 禿かぶろ八はち), Argyns (A'erhun 阿兒あご渾), Circassians (Che'erkesi 撒耳柯思, Che'erge 撒儿哥), Russians (Woluosi 斡羅思おもえ) or Kashmirians (Qieshimi’er 怯おびえ失しつ迷兒まいご, Qishimi'er 乞失迷兒まいご). Jews and Nestorian Christians also belonged to the Semu class, and of course, Europeans merchants like the Polo family.

Semuren played an important role in the conquest and administration of the Yuan empire, and therefore settled in all important places of China. The Mongols gave them the second rank of the four classes of people, above the Northern (Hanren 漢人かんど) and the Southern Chinese (Nanren 南みなみ人じん). Members of Semuren class served in high positions in the Yuan empire, like generals, members of the civilian administration, or as experts in various fields like astronomy, mathematics or ballistics. Others were entrepreneurs and cooperated with the Yuan government. One of the famous Semuren people is Ahmad Fanākatī (Ch. Ahama 阿おもね合馬おうま, 1242-1282), chief counsellor or Manager of Governmental Affairs in the Palace Secretariat (zhongshu pingzhang zhengshi 中書ちゅうしょ平たいら章あきら政事せいじ).

In all official functions, Semuren were preferred over Chinese, and could obtain posts from which Chinese were excluded, like daruγがんまači 達いたる魯花赤あか. While only Mongols were allowed to serve as daruγがんまači, Chinese were given xxx 漢人かんど任つとむ總そう管かん，色目いろめ人じん任にん同どう知ち，以便互相監督かんとく. Semuren enjoyed nearly the same privileges as Mongols in the field of state examinations, and were punished with lighter sentences than Chinese, and had the right to be judged by the xxx 大だい宗そう正ただし府ふ, just like the Mongols. On the other hand, these privileges only pertained to the upper class of the Semuren, and not the commoners, which were treated much in the same way as Chinese subjects.

After the demise of the Yuan empire, many Semuren remained in China. Many of them were Muslims and retained their creed in the coming generations. One of the most famous offspring of Muslim Semuren is Admiral Zheng He 鄭てい和かず (1371-1433 or 1435), whose ancestors had migrated to Yunnan during the Yuan period. The share of Muslims among the Semuren was so large that the two words were nearly synonyms.