Bwdhaeth
![]() | |
Enghraifft o'r canlynol | crefydd, grwp crefyddol mawr, mudiad athronyddol, barn y byd, ffordd o fyw ![]() |
---|---|
Math | crefyddau India, eitem a ddylunir ![]() |
Dechrau/Sefydlu | Unknown ![]() |
Rhagflaenwyd gan | Historical Vedic religion ![]() |
Lleoliad | ledled y byd ![]() |
Yn cynnwys | ysgol Bwdhaeth ![]() |
Sylfaenydd | Siddhartha Gautama ![]() |
![]() |
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Standing_Bodhisattva_Gandhara_Musee_Guimet.jpg/220px-Standing_Bodhisattva_Gandhara_Musee_Guimet.jpg)
Crefydd ddi-dduw yw Bwdhaeth neu Fwdïaeth. Gellir ei hystyried hefyd yn athroniaeth gymhwysol neu'n ffurf ar seicoleg. Canolbwynt Bwdhaeth yw'r hyn a ddysgodd Gotama Buddha, a aned yn Kapilavastu (sydd yn Nepal erbyn hyn), ac a enwyd Siddhattha Gotama oddeutu'r 5g cyn Crist. Lledaenodd Bwdhaeth drwy is-gyfandir India yn y pum canrif nesaf, ac i ardaloedd ehangach o Asia wedi hynny.
Erbyn heddiw, rhennir Bwdhaeth yn dri phrif draddodiad: Theravāda, Mahāyāna, a Vajrayāna. Mae'n parhau i ddenu dilynwyr ledled y byd, ac yn ôl [1] Archifwyd 2018-12-26 yn y Peiriant Wayback, mae oddeutu 350 miliwn o Fwdhyddion (fodd bynnag, mae'r amcangyfrifon a geir mewn sawl wlad yn ansicr). Hyhi yw'r bumed grefydd fwyaf yn y byd yn ôl niferoedd, ar ôl Cristnogaeth, Islam, Hindŵaeth, a chrefydd traddodiadol Tsieineaidd. Mae'r urdd mynaich Sangha ymysg y sefydliadau hynaf ar y ddaear.
Hi yw pedwaredd grefydd fwyaf[1][2] gyda dros 520 miliwn o ddilynwyr, neu dros 7% o'r boblogaeth fyd-eang.[1][3] Mae gan Bwdhaeth amrywiaeth o draddodiadau, dysgeidiaeth, credoau ac arferion ysbrydol.
Fel y mynegir ym Mhedwar Gwiredd Doeth y Bwdha, nod Bwdhaeth yw goresgyn dioddefaint (duḥkha) a achosir gan awydd ac anwybodaeth o wir natur realaeth, gan gynnwys amherffeithrwydd (anicca) a diffyg bodolaeth yr hunan (anattā).[4] Mae'r rhan fwyaf o draddodiadau Bwdhaidd yn pwysleisio mynd dros yr hunan unigol trwy gyrhaeddiad Nirvana neu trwy ddilyn llwybr Bwdhaeth, gan ddod â chylch marwolaeth ac aileni (Saṃsāra) i ben.[5][6][7] Mae dehongliadau gwahanol ysgolion Bwdhaidd yn amrywio o'r llwybr at ryddhad.[8][9] Ymhlith yr arferion a geir yn aml y mae myfyrdod, cadw praeseptau moesol, mynachaeth, lloches yn y Bwdha, y Dharma a'r Sangha, ac datblygu'r Paramitas (perffeithrwydd, neu rinweddau).[10]
Yn gyffredinol, mae ysgolheigion yn cydnabod dwy gangen fawr o Fwdhaeth: Theravāda (Pali: "Ysgol y Blaenoriaid") a Mahāyāna (Sansgrit: "Y Cerbyd Mawr"). Mae gan Theravada ddilyniant eang yn Sri Lanka a De-ddwyrain Asia fel Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar a Gwlad Thai. Mae Mahayana, sy'n cynnwys traddodiadau Zen, y Tir Pur, Bwdhaeth Nichiren , Bwdhaeth Tiantai (Tendai), a Shingon, yn cael ei ymarfer yn agored yn Nepal, Malaysia, Bhutan, China, Japan, Korea, Fietnam, a Taiwan.
Gellir ystyried Vajrayana, corff o ddysgeidiaeth a briodolir i swyddogion India, fel cangen ar wahân neu fel agwedd ar Fwdhaeth Mahayana.[11] Mae Bwdhaeth Tibet, sy'n cadw dysgeidiaeth Vajrayana yn India'r 8g, yn cael ei ymarfer yng ngwledydd rhanbarth yr Himalaya, Mongolia, [16] a Kalmykia.[12] Yn hanesyddol, tan ddechrau'r ail fileniwm, roedd Bwdhaeth hefyd yn cael ei ymarfer yn eang yn Afghanistan ac roedd ganddo droedle i raddau mewn lleoedd eraill gan gynnwys Ynysoedd y Philipinau, y Maldives, ac Wsbecistan.
Bywyd y Bwdha
[golygu | golygu cod]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/220px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2_%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2.png/220px-%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2_%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2.png)
Mae Bwdhaeth yn grefydd Indiaidd a seiliwyd ar ddysgeidiaeth Gautama Bwdha ac a elwir hefyd yn Shakyamuni (doethor y Shakya's), neu'r "Bwdha" ("yr Un Effro"); roedd yn byw rhwng y 5ed a'r 4g CC[13][13].
Yn y testunau cynnar gelwir teulu'r Bwdha yn "Gautama" (Pali: Gotama). Sonnir am fanylion bywyd Bwdha mewn llawer o destunau Bwdhaidd Cynnar ond maent yn anghyson. Mae'n anodd profi ei gefndir cymdeithasol a manylion bywyd, ac mae'r union ddyddiadau yn ansicr.[14][22]
Mae tystiolaeth y testunau cynnar yn awgrymu bod Siddhartha Gautama wedi ei eni yn Lumbini, (Nepa) heddiw) a’i fagu yn Kapilavastu,[23] tref yng Ngwastadedd Afon Ganga, ger ffin fodern Nepal-India, a’i fod wedi treulio ei oes yn yr hyn sydd bellach yn Bihar [25] ac Uttar Pradesh.[24][14]
Dywed rhai chwedlau hagiograffig bod ei dad yn frenin o'r enw Suddhodana, ac mai ei fam oedd y Frenhines Maya.[26] Mae ysgolheigion fel Richard Gombrich yn ystyried hyn yn amheus oherwydd bod cyfuniad o dystiolaeth yn awgrymu iddo gael ei eni yng nghymuned Shakya, a lywodraethwyd gan gyngor-gweriniaeth bychan lle nad oedd rhengoedd cymdeithasol, ond lle'r oedd hynafedd yn bwysig.[27][30] Efallai bod rhai o'r straeon am Fwdha, ei fywyd, ei ddysgeidiaeth, a'i honiadau am y gymdeithas y cafodd ei magu ynddi wedi cael eu dyfeisio a'u rhyngosod yn ddiweddarach yn y testunau Bwdhaidd.[27][31]
Yn ôl testunau cynnar fel y Pali Ariyapariyesanā-sutta ("YTraethawd ar y cwest bonheddig," MN 26) a'i baralel Tsieineaidd yn MĀ 204, symudwyd Gautama gan ddioddefaint (dukkha) bywyd a marwolaeth, a'i ailadrodd diddiwedd oherwydd ailenedigaeth.[32] Felly aeth ati i geisio dod o hyd i ryddhad rhag dioddefaint (a elwir hefyd yn "nirvana").[33] Mae testunau a bywgraffiadau cynnar yn nodi bod Gautama wedi astudio gyntaf o dan ddau athro myfyrdod, sef Alara Kalama (Sansgrit: Arada Kalama) ac Uddaka Ramaputta (Sansgrit: Udraka Ramaputra), gan ddysgu myfyrdod ac athroniaeth, yn enwedig cyrhaeddiad myfyriol "cylch dim byd" gan y cyntaf, a "sffêr heb ganfyddiad na di-ganfyddiad" gan yr ail.[34][35][38]
Gan ddarganfod nad oedd y dysgeidiaethau hyn yn ddigonol i gyrraedd ei nod, trodd at arfer asgeticiaeth ddifrifol, a oedd yn cynnwys trefn ymprydio gaeth a gwahanol fathau o reoli anadl.[39] Methodd hyn â chyrraedd ei nod, ac felly trodd at yr arferiad myfyriol dhyana. Eisteddodd mewn myfyrdod o dan goeden Ficus religiosa a elwir bellach yn Goeden Bodhi yn nhref Bodh Gaya a chyrhaeddodd stad a elwir y "Deffroad" (Bodhi).[40]
Yn ôl amryw destunau cynnar fel y Mahāsaccaka-sutta, a’r Samaññaphala Sutta, wedi deffro, cafodd y Bwdha fewnwelediad i waith karma a’i fywydau blaenorol, ynghyd â chyflawni diwedd yr halogi meddyliol (asavas), diwedd dioddefaint, a diwedd aileni yn saṃsāra.[39] Daeth y digwyddiad hwn â sicrwydd hefyd am y Ffordd Ganol fel y llwybr cywir o ymarfer ysbrydol i roi diwedd ar ddioddefaint.[41] [42] Fel Bwdha goleuedig , denodd ddilynwyr a sefydlu Sangha (trefn fynachaidd).[43] Treuliodd weddill ei oes yn dysgu'r Dharma yr oedd wedi'i ddarganfod, ac yna bu farw, gan gyflawni " nirvana terfynol ," yn 80 oed yn Kushinagar, India.[44]
Lluosogwyd dysgeidiaeth Bwdha gan ei ddilynwyr, a drodd yn ystod canrifoedd olaf y mileniwm 1af CC yn sawl ysgol o feddwl Bwdhaidd, pob un â'i fasged ei hun o destunau yn cynnwys gwahanol ddehongliadau a dysgeidiaeth ddilys o'r Bwdha;[44][45][46] esblygodd y rhain dros amser i lawer o draddodiadau. Y mwyaf adnabyddus, mae'n debyg yw Bwdhaeth Theravada, Mahayana a Vajrayana.[47][48][51]
Golwg bydeang
[golygu | golygu cod]Mae'r term "Bwdhaeth" yn air gwneud gorllewinol, yn gyffredin (ac "yn ddisgrifiad bras iawn" yn ôl Donald S. Lopez Jr) a ddefnyddir fel cyfieithiad o Dharma'r Bwdha, fójiào mewn Tsieinëeg, bukkyō mewn Japaneg, nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos mewn Tibeteg, buddhadharma mewn Sansgrit, a buddhaśāsana mewn Pali.[52]
Athrawiaethau
[golygu | golygu cod]Y Pedwar Gwiredd Doeth
[golygu | golygu cod]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg/220px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg)
Dysgodd y Bwdha fod dioddefaint mewn bywyd a achosir gan chwenychu, ac y gellir ei ddileu trwy ddilyn y Llwybr Wythblyg Doeth (gw. isod):
- Dioddefaint: Dioddefaint yw genedigaeth, dioddefaint yw heneiddio, dioddefaint yw afiechyd, dioddefaint yw marwolaeth; dioddefaint yw uno â'r hyn sy'n annymunol; dioddefaint yw gwahanu o'r hyn sy'n ddymunol; dioddefaint yw peidio â chael yr hyn a ddymunir; yn gryno, dioddefaint yw'r pump cyfansawdd sy'n wrthrych ymafael.
- Tarddiad dioddefaint: Y chwenychu sy'n arwain at ailenedigaeth, a'r ymgais i osgoi yr hyn a welir yn annymunol.
- Darfod dioddefaint: Darfod chwenychu.
- Y ffordd sy'n arwain at ddarfod dioddefaint: Y Llwybr Wythblyg Doeth;
Nirfana
[golygu | golygu cod]Nirfana yw diffodd pob chwenychiad, rhithdyb, ac anwybodaeth.
Y Llwybr Wythblyg Doeth
[golygu | golygu cod]- Safbwynt Cyfiawn - Sylweddoli'r Pedwar Gwiredd Doeth
- Gwerthoedd Cyfiawn - Ymrwymiad i dyfiant meddyliol a moesol mewn cymedroldeb
- Iaith Gyfiawn - Siarad mewn modd di-drais, gan ddweud y gwir, a heb or-ddweud
- Gweithredoedd Cyfiawn - Gweithredu holliach, gan osgoi gweithredoedd a fyddai'n gwneud niwed.
- Bywoliaeth Gyfiawn - Gwneud swydd nad yw'n diweddu eich hun neu eraill mewn unrhyw ffordd, yn uniongyrchol neu'n anuniongyrchol.
- Ymdrech Cyfiawn - Gwneud ymdrech i wella
- Gwybodus Rwydd Cyfiawn - Y gallu meddyliol i weld pethau fel y maent, gydag ymwybod clir.
- Myfyrio Cyfiawn
Y cylch aileni
[golygu | golygu cod]Saṃsāra
[golygu | golygu cod]Ystyr Saṃsāra yw "crwydro" neu "fyd", gyda chysyniad newid cylchol, cylchol.[53][54] Mae'n cyfeirio at theori aileni a "chylch bywyd, mater, bodolaeth", rhagdybiaeth sylfaenol o Fwdhaeth, fel gyda phob prif grefydd Indiaidd.[54][55] Ystyrir bod Samsara mewn Bwdhaeth yn dukkha, yn anfoddhaol ac yn boenus, [56] yn cael ei gynnal gan awydd ac avidya (anwybodaeth), a'r karma sy'n deillio o hynny.[54][57][58] Y rhyddhad o'r cylch hwn o fodolaeth, yw nirvana, sef sylfaen a chyfiawnhad hanesyddol pwysicaf Bwdhaeth.[59][60]
Mae testunau Bwdhaidd yn honni y gall aileni ddigwydd mewn chwe chylch o fodolaeth, sef tri chylch da (nefol, demi-dduw, dynol) a thri chylch drwg (anifail, ysbrydion llwglyd, uffernol).[note 1] Daw Samsara i ben os yw person yn cyrraedd ei nirvana.[62][63][64]
Aileni
[golygu | golygu cod]![A very large hill behind two palm trees and a boulevard, where the Buddha is believed to have been cremated](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kushinara1.jpg/220px-Kushinara1.jpg)
Mae aileni yn cyfeirio at broses lle mae pobl yn mynd trwy sawl einioes (neu fywyd), fel un o lawer, a phob un yn rhedeg o genhedlu i farwolaeth.[65] Yn y meddwl Bwdhaidd, nid yw'r aileni hwn yn cynnwys enaid nac unrhyw sylwedd sefydlog. Y rheswm am hyn yw bod athrawiaeth Bwdhaidd anattā yn gwrthod cysyniadau hunan parhaol neu enaid tragwyddol digyfnewid a geir mewn crefyddau eraill.[66]
Yn gyffredinol, mae'r traddodiadau Bwdhaidd wedi anghytuno pa ran o'r person sy'n cael ei aileni, yn ogystal â pha mor gyflym y mae'r aileni'n digwydd ar ôl marwolaeth.[67][68] Honna rhai traddodiadau Bwdhaidd nad yw athrawiaeth "di-hunan" yn golygu nad oes hunan barhaol, ond mae personoliaeth avacya (anesboniadwy) (pudgala) yn bodoli, ac mae hwnnw'n mudo o un bywyd i'r llall.[67]
Karma
[golygu | golygu cod]- Prif: Karma
Mewn Bwdhaeth, mae karma (o Sansgrit : "gweithredu, gwaith") yn gyrru saṃsāra - cylch o ddioddefaint ac aileni ar gyfer pob bod. Mae gweithredoedd da, (Pāli: kusala) a gweithredoedd drwg, (Pāli: akusala) yn cynhyrchu "hadau" yn y cynhwysydd anymwybodol (ālaya) sy'n aeddfedu'n hwyrach naill ai yn y bywyd hwn neu mewn aileni dilynol.[69][69] Mae bodolaeth karma yn gred graidd mewn Bwdhaeth, fel gyda phob prif grefydd Indiaidd, ac nid yw'n awgrymu tynged, na bod karma yn achosi popeth sy'n digwydd i berson.[70][note 2]
Arferion Bwdhaidd cyffredin
[golygu | golygu cod]Clywed a dysgu'r Dharma
[golygu | golygu cod]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/220px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg)
Mewn amryw o suttas sy'n cyflwyno'r llwybr graddedig a addysgir gan y Bwdha, fel y Samaññaphala Sutta a'r Cula-Hatthipadopama Sutta, y cam cyntaf ar y llwybr yw clywed y Bwdha'n dysgu'r Dharma.[71] Yna dywedir fod hyn yn arwain i'r person fagu hyder neu gryfhau yn ei ffydd yn nysgeidiaeth y Bwdha.[71]
Mae athrawon Bwdhaidd Mahayana fel Yin Shun hefyd yn nodi bod clywed y Dharma ac astudio traethodau Bwdhaidd yn angenrheidiol "os yw rhywun eisiau dysgu ac ymarfer y Bwdha Dharma." [72] Yn yr un modd, ym Mwdhaeth Indo-Tibet, mae'r testunau "Camau'r Llwybr" (Lamrim) yn gosod y gweithgaredd o wrando ar ddysgeidiaeth Bwdhaidd fel arfer cynnar pwysig.[73]
Lloches
[golygu | golygu cod]Yn draddodiadol, y cam cyntaf yn y rhan fwyaf o ysgolion Bwdhaidd yw gofyn am gymryd y "Tair Lloches", a elwir hefyd y "Tair Gem" ( Sansgrit: triratna, Pali: tiratana) fel sylfaen ymarfer crefyddol person.[74] Efallai bod motiff Brahmanaidd y lloches driphlyg, a geir yn Rigveda 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 a Chandogya Upanishad 2.22.3–4, wedi dylanwadu ar yr arfer hwn.[75] Weithiau mae Bwdhaeth Tibet yn ychwanegu pedwerydd lloches, ysef y lama. Mae'r Bwdist yn credu bod y tair lloches yn amddiffynnol ac yn fath o barch.[74]
Mae'r fformiwla hynafol sy'n cael ei hailadrodd ar gyfer cymryd lloches yn cadarnhau "Rwy'n mynd at y Bwdha fel lloches, rwy'n mynd at y Dhamma fel lloches, rwy'n mynd at y Sangha fel lloches".[76]Mae adrodd y tair lloches, yn ôl Harvey, yn cael ei ystyried nid fel lle i guddio, yn hytrach fel lee sy'n "puro, codi a chryfhau'r galon".[77]
Śīla - moeseg Bwdhaidd
[golygu | golygu cod]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg/220px-Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg)
Śīla (Sansgrit) neu sīla (Pāli) yw'r cysyniad o "rinweddau moesol", dyna'r ail grŵp ac yn rhan annatod o Lwybr Wythplyg Teg.[78] Yn gyffredinol mae'n cynnwys lleferydd cywir, gweithredu cywir a bywoliaeth gywir.[78]
Un o'r ffurfiau moeseg mwyaf sylfaenol mewn Bwdhaeth yw cymryd "praeseptau". Mae hyn yn cynnwys y Pum Praesept ar gyfer lleygwyr, Wyth neu Deg Precept ar gyfer bywyd mynachaidd, yn ogystal â rheolau Dhamma (Vinaya neu Patimokkha) a fabwysiadwyd gan y fynachlog.[79][79]
ymhlith elfennau pwysig eraill moeseg y Bwdhst y mae rhoi neu elusen (dāna), Mettā (Ewyllys Da), gochelgarwch ( Appamada ), 'hunan-barch' ( Hri ) a 'pharch at ganlyniadau' (Apatrapya).
Praeseptau
[golygu | golygu cod]Mae ysgrythurau Bwdhaidd yn egluro'r pum argymhelliad fel y safon leiaf o foesoldeb Bwdhaidd.[80] Dyma'r system foesoldeb bwysicaf o fewn Bwdhaeth, ynghyd â'r rheolau mynachaidd.[81]
- "Rwy'n ymgymryd â'r praesept hyfforddi (sikkha-padam) i ymatal rhag ymosodiad ar fodau sy'n anadlu." Mae hyn yn cynnwys archebu neu achosi i rywun arall ladd. Mae'r suttas Pali hefyd yn dweud na ddylai person "gymeradwyo pobl eraill i ladd" ac y dylai pobl fod yn "egwyddorol, yn dosturiol, yn crynu er lles popeth byw."[82]
- "Rwy'n ymgymryd â'r praesept hyfforddi i ymatal rhag cymryd yr hyn nad yw'n cael ei roi." Yn ôl Harvey, mae hyn hefyd yn cynnwys twyll, twyllo, ffugio yn ogystal â "gwadu ar gam fod un mewn dyled i rywun."[83]
- "Rwy'n ymgymryd â'r praesept hyfforddi i ymatal rhag camymddwyn ynghylch pleserau'r synhwyrau." Mae hyn yn gyffredinol yn cyfeirio at odineb, yn ogystal â threisio a llosgach. Mae hefyd yn berthnasol i ryw gyda'r rhai sydd o dan ofal gwarchodwyr cyfreithiol ee rhieni maeth. Fe'i dehonglir mewn gwahanol ffyrdd yn y diwylliannau Bwdhaidd amrywiol.[84]
- "Rwy'n ymgymryd â'r praesept hyfforddi i ymatal rhag lleferydd ffug." Yn ôl Harvey mae hyn yn cynnwys "unrhyw fath o ddweud celwydd, twyll neu or-ddweud ... hyd yn oed twyll di-eiriau trwy ystum neu arwydd arall ... neu ddatganiadau camarweiniol."[85] Mae'r praesept yn aml hefyd yn cael ei ystyried yn cynnwys mathau eraill o leferydd anghywir fel "lleferydd ymrannol, geiriau llym, ymosodol, blin, a hyd yn oed hel clecs."[86]
- "Rwy'n ymgymryd â'r praesept hyfforddi i ymatal rhag diod alcoholig neu gyffuriau sy'n arwain at ddiofalwch neu esgeulustod." Yn ôl Harvey, mae meddwdod yn cael ei ystyried yn ffordd i guddio yn hytrach nag wynebu dioddefiadau bywyd. Mae'n cael ei ystyried yn niweidiol i eglurder meddyliol, ymwybyddiaeth ofalgar a'r gallu i gadw'r pedair praesept arall.[87]
Mae ymgymryd a chynnal y pum praesept yn seiliedig ar yr egwyddor o beidio â niweidio ( Pāli a Sansgrit: ahiṃsa).[88] Mae'r Canon Pali yn argymell un i berson gymharu'i hun ag eraill, ac ar sail hynny, i beidio â brifo eraill.[89] Sylfaen i'r praeseptau yw tosturi a chred mewn dial karmig.[90][91] Rhan hanfodol o'r arfer defosiynol rheolaidd, gartref ac yn y deml leol yw ymgymryd â'r pum praesept.[92][93]
Fodd bynnag, mae'r graddau y mae pobl yn eu cadw yn wahanol fesul rhanbarth ac amser.[94][94] Cyfeirir atynt weithiau fel praeseptau śrāvakayāna yn nhraddodiad Mahāyāna, gan eu cyferbynnu â'r praeseptau bodhisattva.[94]
Nid yw'r pum praesept yn orchmynion ac nid yw camweddau yn gwahodd sancsiynau crefyddol, ond mae eu pŵer wedi'i seilio ar y gred Bwdhaidd mewn canlyniadau karmig a'u heffaith yn y bywyd ar ôl hynny. Mae lladd neu lofruddiaeth o fewn y gred Bwdhaidd yn arwain at aileni'r person ym mharthau uffern, ac am gyfnod hirach mewn amodau mwy difrifol pe bai un a leddir yn fynach. Mae'r person sy'n godinebu, yn yr un modd, yn cael ei aileni fel putain neu yn uffern, yn dibynnu a oedd y partner yn ddibriod neu'n briod.[95] Mae'r praeseptau moesol hyn yn cael eu gorfodi'n wirfoddol gan y person, mewn diwylliant Bwdhaidd lleyg trwy gredu mewn karma ac aileni. O fewn yr athrawiaeth Fwdhaidd, bwriad y praeseptau yw datblygu meddwl a chymeriad i wneud cynnydd ar y llwybr i oleuedigaeth.[96]
Myfyrdod - Samādhi a Dhyāna
[golygu | golygu cod]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/220px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg)
Mae ystod eang o arferion myfyrio wedi datblygu yn y traddodiadau Bwdhaidd, ond mae "myfyrdod" yn cyfeirio'n bennaf at gyrhaeddiad samādhi ac arfer dhyāna (Pali: jhāna). Mae Samādhi yn gyflwr digynnwrf lle canolbwyntir ar un peth, a hynny yn ddwys, mewn myfyrdod. Fe'i diffinnir gan Asanga fel "un pwynt meddwl ar y gwrthrych sy'n cael ei ystyried. Ei swyddogaeth yw rhoi sylfaen i wybodaeth (jñāna)."[97] Dhyāna yw'r "cyflwr o fod yn gydradd ac ymwybyddiaeth berffaith (upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)," a gyrhaeddir trwy hyfforddiant meddwl â ffocws.[98]
Mae arfer dhyāna, sy'n cael ei wneud yn aml pan fo'r corff mewn safle (neu asana) ioga, yn tawelu'r meddwl.[99][note 3]
Gwreiddiau
[golygu | golygu cod]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Farsari_Daibutsu.jpg/220px-Farsari_Daibutsu.jpg)
Mae'r dystiolaeth gynharaf o iogis a'u traddodiad myfyriol, fel y dywed Karel Werner, i'w chael yn emyn Keśin 10.136 y Rigveda.[100] Er bod tystiolaeth yn awgrymu bod myfyrdod wedi'i ymarfer yn y canrifoedd cyn y Bwdha,[101] mae'r methodolegau myfyriol a ddisgrifir yn y testunau Bwdhaidd yn rhai o'r cynharaf ymhlith testunau sydd wedi goroesi i'r oes fodern, mewn unrhyw iaith.[102][102] Mae'r methodolegau hyn, felly, yn gyfuniad o'r hyn a oedd yn bodoli cyn y Bwdha yn ogystal â'r hyn a ddatblygwyd yn gyntaf o fewn Bwdhaeth cynnar.[106]
Nodiadau
[golygu | golygu cod]- ↑ Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms; when described as five realms, the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm.[61]
- ↑ Diseases and suffering induced by the disruptive actions of other people are examples of non-karma suffering.[70]
- ↑ Williams refers to Frauwallner (1973, p. 155)
Llyfryddiaeth
[golygu | golygu cod]- Ajahn Sucitto (2010), Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha's First Teaching, Shambhala
- Anderson, Carol (1999), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
- Anderson, Carol (2003). "Four Noble Truths". In Buswell, Robert E. (gol.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9.
- Anderson, Carol (2013), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
- Armstrong, Karen (2004), Buddha, Penguin Press, ISBN 978-0-14-303436-0
- Aronson, Harvey B. (1980). Love and Sympathy in Theravāda Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1403-5.
- Bareau, André (1955), 'Les Sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule, Saigon: École Française d'Extrême-Orient
- Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2000), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications, ISBN 978-0-86171-331-8
- Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-491-9.
- Bond, George D. (1992), The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
- Brazier, David (2001), The Feeling Buddha, Robinson Publishing
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1998), "Did the Buddha Believe in Karma and Rebirth?", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 21 (1): 1–20, https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8869/2776
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007), Greater Magadha, Studies the Culture of Early India. Series: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2 South Asia Series, Brill Academic Publishers Inc., ISBN 978-90-04-11519-4
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011). Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism. Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-20140-8.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (2013). Buddhist Teaching in India. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-811-5.
- Bucknell, Rod (1984), "The Buddhist to Liberation: An Analysis of the Listing of Stages", The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7 (2), https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8631/2538
- Paths to Liberation. The Marga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1992
- Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald Jr. (2003), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton University Press
- Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, MacMillan Reference Books, ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9
- Carrithers, Michael (1983), The Buddha, Oxford [England]; New York: Oxford University Press
- Carrithers, Michael (1986), Founders of faith, Oxford [England]; New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-283066-1
- Carter, John Ross (1987), "Four Noble Truths", in Jones, Lindsay, MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religions, MacMillan
- Choong, Mun-keat (2000), The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A Comparative Study Based on the Sutranga Portion of the Pali Samyutta-Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag
- Choong, Mun-Keat (1999), The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1649-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=HJafx7uO0VsC
- Cohen, Robert S. (2006). Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity. Routledge.
- Conze, Edward (2013), Buddhist Thought in India: Three Phases of Buddhist Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-54231-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=kY5TAQAAQBAJ
- Clarke, Peter B.; Beyer, Peter (2009), The World's Religions: continuities and transformations, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-39725-4
- Collins, Randall (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-00187-9, https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC
- Collins, Steven (1998). Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57054-1.
- Conze, Edward (2001), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary, Grey Fox Press, ISBN 978-0-87704-049-1
- Coogan, Michael D., ed. (2003), The Illustrated Guide to World Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-521997-5, https://books.google.com/books?id=BshpqnbLOvQC
- Cousins, L.S. (1996), "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Series 3 (6.1): 57–63, doi:10.1017/S1356186300014760, http://indology.info/papers/cousins/, adalwyd 2007-07-11; reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
- Davidson, Ronald M. (2003), Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-12619-9
- Dutt, Sukumar (1988) [1962]. Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0498-2.
- Eliade, Mircea, ed. (1987), The Encyclopedia of religion, New York: Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-02-909480-8
- Eliot, Charles (1935), Japanese Buddhism, London: Edward Arnold & Co.
- Sources of Indian Tradition: From the Beginning to 1800, 1, New York: Columbia University Press, 1988, ISBN 978-0-231-06651-8
- Emmanuel, Steven M., ed. (2013) (hardback), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-470-65877-2, http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/A%20Companion%20to%20Buddhist%20Philosophy_Emmanuel.pdf, adalwyd 2021-12-27
- Emmanuel, Steven M., ed. (2016) (paperback), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-119-14466-3, https://books.google.com/books?id=P_lmCgAAQBAJ
- Fowler, Merv (1999), Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-66-0
- Frauwallner, Erich (1973), History of Indian Philosophy: The philosophy of the Veda and of the epic. The Buddha and the Jina. The Sāmkhya and the classical Yoga-system, Motilal Banarsidass
- Funayama, Tōru (2004), "The Acceptance of Buddhist Precepts by the Chinese in the Fifth Century", Journal of Asian History 38 (2): 97–120, JSTOR 41933379
- Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-289223-2, https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe
- Gethin, Rupert (2001), The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiyā Dhammā (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-85168-285-0
- Gethin, Rupert (2008), Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press
- Getz, Daniel A. (2004), Buswell, Robert E., ed., Precepts, Macmillan Reference US, Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2, https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/precepts, adalwyd 29 Tachwedd 2018
- Goleman, Daniel (2008). Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama. Bantam. Kindle Edition.
- Gombrich, Richard (1984), The World of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-0-500-25089-1
- Gombrich, Richard F. (1988), Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-07585-5
- Gombrich, Richard F. (1997), How Buddhism Began, Munshiram Manoharlal
- Nodyn:Harvc
- Gombrich, Richard F. (2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo (arg. 2nd). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-90352-8.
- Gowans, Christopher (2004). Philosophy of the Buddha: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-46973-4.
- Nodyn:Harvc
- Gowans, Christopher W. (2014), Buddhist Moral Philosophy: An Introduction, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-65935-8
- Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (1995), Introduction to Buddhism: An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life, Tharpa Publications, ISBN 978-0-9789067-7-1
- Harvey, Graham (2016), Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices, Routledge
- Harvey, Peter (1998), An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-31333-9, https://archive.org/details/introductiontobu00harv_0
- Harvey, Peter (1995), The Selfless Mind, Curzon Press
- Harvey, Peter (2000), An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-511-07584-1, http://elibrary.ibc.ac.th/files/public/Peter%20Harvey%20-%20An%20Introduction%20to%20Buddhist%20Ethics~%20Foundations%2C%20Values%20and%20Issues.pdf, adalwyd 29 Tachwedd 2018
- Harvey, Peter (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (arg. 2nd). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67674-8.
- Hawkins, Bradley K. (1999), The Pocket Idiots Guide: Buddhism, Laurence King (Penguin, Alpha), ISBN 978-0-02-864459-2
- Hayes, Richard P. (2013), "The Internet as Window onto American Buddhism", American Buddhism: Methods and Findings in Recent Scholarship, Routledge
- Henderson, Carol E. (2002), Culture and Customs of India, Greenwood Publishing Group
- Hill, John E. (2009), Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE, Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge, ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1
- Hirakawa, Akira (1993), Groner, Paul, ed., A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0955-0, https://books.google.com/books?id=XjjwjC7rcOYC
- Hodge, Stephen (2002), Zen Masterclass, Godsfield Press
- Hookham, S.K. (1991), The Buddha Within: Tathagatagarbha Doctrine According to the Shentong Interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhaga, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-0357-0, https://books.google.com/books?id=JqLa4xWot-YC&pg=PA96
- Horigan, D.P. (1996), "Of Compassion and Capital Punishment: A Buddhist Perspective on the Death Penalty", American Journal of Jurisprudence 41: 271–288, doi:10.1093/ajj/41.1.271, http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/damin2.htm
- Huxter, Malcolm (2016), Healing the Heart and Mind with Mindfulness: Ancient Path, Present Moment, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-50540-2, https://books.google.com/books?id=n2qFCwAAQBAJ
- Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2001), Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1776-0
- Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography (PDF). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. tt. 34–37. Archifwyd o'r gwreiddiol (PDF) ar 20 Hydref 2013.
- Jong, J.W. de (1993), "The Beginnings of Buddhism", The Eastern Buddhist 26 (2)
- Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (2011), Encyclopedia of Global Religion, Sage Publications, ISBN 978-1-4522-6656-5, https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ
- Kalupahana, David (1966). "Sarvastivada and its theory of sarvam asti". University of Ceylon Review 24: 94–105.
- Kanno, Hiroshi (2004). "Huisi's Perspective on the Lotus Sutra as Seen Through the Meaning of the Course of Ease and Bliss in the Lotus Sutra". Journal of the Institute of Oriental Philosophy 14: 146–166. http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kanno2.pdf. Adalwyd 5 Chwefror 2010.
- Kasulis, T.P. (2006), "Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness", Journal of Buddhist Ethics 13: 1–12, http://www.buddhistethics.org/13/zse1-kasulis.pdf
- Keown, Damien (1996), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press
- Keown, Damien (2003), Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-157917-2
- Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2004), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-31414-5
- Keown, Damien (2009), Buddhism, Sterling Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4027-6883-5
- Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2010), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-55624-8
- Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-98588-1.
- Nodyn:Harvc
- Kingsland, James (2016), Siddhartha's Brain: Unlocking the Ancient Science of Enlightenment, HarperCollins
- Klostermaier, Klaus (2010). A Survey of Hinduism (arg. 3rd). State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3.
- Kochumuttom, Thomas A. (1999), A buddhist Doctrine of Experience. A New Translation and Interpretation of the Works of Vasubandhu the Yogacarin, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
- Konik, Adrian (2009), Buddhism and Transgression: The Appropriation of Buddhism in the Contemporary West, BRIIL
- Krishan, Yuvraj (1997). The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in Brāhmaṇical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions. Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8.
- Kuan, Tse-fu (2007). Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New Approaches Through Psychology and Textual Analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit Sources. Routledge.
- Lamb, Christopher (2001), "Cosmology, myth and symbolism", in Harvey, Peter, Buddhism, Bloomsbury Publishing
- Ledgerwood, Judy (2008), Kent, Alexandra; Chandler, David, eds., Buddhist practice in rural Kandal province 1960 and 2003, Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, ISBN 978-87-7694-036-2
- Lindtner, Christian (1997), Master of Wisdom, Dharma Publishing
- Lindtner, Christian (1999), "From Brahmanism to Buddhism", Asian Philosophy 9: 5–37, doi:10.1080/09552369908575487
- Lopez, Donald S. (1995), Buddhism in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-04442-2, https://archive.org/details/buddhisminpracti00lope
- Lopez, Donald S. (2001), The Story of Buddhism, HarperCollins
- Lopez, Donald, Jr. (2009), Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, University of Chicago Press
- Lusthaus, Dan (2002), Buddhist Phenomenology, Routledge
- Makransky, John J. (1997), Buddhahood Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet, SUNY
- Matthews, Bruce (1986), "Post-Classical Developments In The Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism", in Ronald W. Neufeldt, Karma and rebirth: Post-classical developments, SUNY
- McClelland, Norman C. (2010), Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma, McFarland, ISBN 978-0-7864-5675-8, https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC
- McFarlane, Stewart (2001), "Making Moral Decisions", in Peter Harvey, Buddhism, Continuum, ISBN 978-0-8264-5350-1
- Métraux, Daniel A. (2010). How Soka Gakkai Became a Global Buddhist Movement. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. t. vi. ISBN 978-0-7734-3758-6.
- Miller, Barbara Stoler (1996), Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords, University of California Press
- Mitchell, Donald W. (2002), Buddhism: introducing the Buddhist experience, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513951-8
- Mizuno, Kogen (1996), Essentials of Buddhism: basic terminology and concepts of Buddhist philosophy and practice, Tokyo: Kosei, ISBN 978-4-333-01683-9, https://archive.org/details/essentialsofbudd00mizu
- Morgan, Peggy; Lawton, Clive A., eds. (2007), Ethical Issues in Six Religious Traditions (2nd ed.), Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-2330-3
- Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu; Bodhi, Bhikkhu (1995). The middle length discourses of the Buddha: a new translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Wisdom Pub.
- Nattier, Jan (2003), A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha), University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2607-9
- Nattier, Jan; Prebish, Charles S. (1977), "Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism in History of Religions", History of Religions 16 (3): 237–272, doi:10.1086/462767
- Norman, K.R. (1997), A Philological Approach to Buddhism. The Bukkyo Dendo Kybkai Lectures 1994, School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London)
- Nyanatiloka (1980), Buddhist Dictionary, Buddhist Publication Society
- Oldenberg, Hermann (1991), The Doctrine of the Upanishads and Early Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (reprint)
- Onians, Isabelle (2001), Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm (PhD dissertation), Oxford, Trinity Term
- Paranjpe, A.C. (1998), Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought, Springer, ISBN 978-0-306-45844-6, https://books.google.com/books?id=7Eqa6eoerDAC&pg=PA351, adalwyd 10 Mawrth 2012
- Pavāra, Urmilā (2009), The weave of my life: a Dalit woman's memoirs, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-14900-6, https://archive.org/details/weaveofmylifedal00pawa, adalwyd 10 Mawrth 2012
- Payne, Richard K. (2006), Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, Boston: Wisdom Publications, ISBN 978-0-86171-487-2
- Powers, John (2007). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 978-1-55939-282-2.
- Prebish, Charles (1993), Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, The Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-2698-4, https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000preb
- Prebish, Charles S.; Keown, Damien (2006). Introducing Buddhism. Routledge.
- Queen, Christopher S.; King, Sallie B., gol. (1996). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2844-3.
- Nodyn:Harvc
- Rahula, Walpola (1974), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press, ISBN 978-955-9219-19-4
- Rahula, Walpola (2014), What the Buddha Taught, Oneworld Classics, ISBN 978-1-78074-000-3, https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CcAwAAQBAJ
- Ratanakul, P. (2007), "The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism", The Journal of Religion and Culture 1 (1): 233–257, ISSN 1905-8144
- The Pali Text Society's Pali–English dictionary, Chipstead, London: Pali Text Society, 1921–1925, https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/, adalwyd 2021-12-27
- Roach, Peter (2011), Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2
- Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L. (1982), The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction (3rd ed.), Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing, ISBN 978-0-534-01027-0, https://archive.org/details/buddhistreligion0000robi_h9v3
- Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L. (1997). Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction (arg. 4th). Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-0-534-55858-1.
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-69534-3, https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press
- Schmidt-Leukel, Perry (2006), Understanding Buddhism, Dunedin Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-903765-18-0, https://books.google.com/books?id=3DrYAAAAMAAJ
- Schmithausen, Lambert (1981), "On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism".", Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf), Wiesbaden: von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler, pp. 199–250
- Schmithausen, Lambert (1986), "Critical Response", in Ronald W. Neufeldt, Karma and rebirth: Post-classical developments, SUNY
- Schopen, Gregory (2002), Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press
- Schuhmacher, Stephen, ed. (1991), The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen, Shambhala, ISBN 978-0-87773-520-5
- Shults, Brett (2014), "On the Buddha's Use of Some Brahmanical Motifs in Pali Texts", Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 6: 121–129, http://jocbs.org/index.php/jocbs/article/view/76/96
- Skilling, Peter (1992). "The Raksā Literature of the Śrāvakayāna". Journal of the Pali Text Society 16: 109–182. http://www.palitext.com/JPTS_scans/JPTS_1992_XVI.pdf.
- Skilling, Peter (Summer 1997). "The Advent of Theravada Buddhism to Mainland South-east Asia". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 20 (1): 93–108. https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8854/2761. Adalwyd 2020-10-07.
- Skorupski, Tadeusz, ed. (1990), Buddhist Forum, vol I, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7286-0162-8
- Smith (2006), "Buddhism", in Juergensmeyer, Mark, The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions, Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513798-9
- Southwold, Martin (1978). "Buddhism and The Definition of Religion". Man 13 (3): 362–379. doi:10.2307/2801935. JSTOR 2801935.
- Spiro, Melford E. (1982), Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese Vicissitudes, University of California Press
- Sujato, Bhante; Brahmali, Bhikkhu (2015), The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts, Chroniker Press, ISBN 978-1-312-91150-5, https://ocbs.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/authenticity.pdf
- Swearer, Donald (2004), Becoming the Buddha: the ritual of image consecration in Thailand, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-11435-4
- Tamney, Joseph B. (1998), "Buddhism", in William H. Swatos, editor, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, Rowman Altamira
- Terwiel, Barend Jan (2012), Monks and Magic: Revisiting a Classic Study of Religious Ceremonies in Thailand, Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, ISBN 978-87-7694-101-7, http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:867441/FULLTEXT01.pdf
- Trainor, Kevin (2004), Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-517398-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=_PrloTKuAjwC
- Thich Nhat Hanh (1974), The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books, ISBN 978-0-7679-0369-1
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill
- Warder, A.K. (2000), Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
- Welch, B. Alan (1967), The practice of Chinese Buddhism, 1900–1950, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
- Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
- White, Kenneth (2005), The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo, The Edwin Mellen Press, ISBN 0-7734-5985-5
- Wilson, Jeff (2010), Saṃsāra and Rebirth, in Buddhism, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0141, ISBN 978-0-19-539352-1
- Williams, Paul (1989), Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-02537-9
- Williams, Paul (2000), Buddhist Thought in India
- Williams, Paul (2002), Buddhist Thought (Kindle ed.), Taylor & Francis
- Williams, Paul, ed. (2005), Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 8 volumes, London: Routledge
- Williams, Paul, ed. (2005a), Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal history; Theravāda doctrine, Volume 2, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-33228-6, https://books.google.com/books?id=e5LXzQD-GyEC
- Williams, Paul (2005b). Buddhism: The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism; Some Mahāyāna religious topics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-33229-3.
- Williams, Paul (2005c). Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-33226-2.
- Williams, Paul (2008), Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35653-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ
- Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander (2012), Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition (2nd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-57179-1, https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ ISBN 978-1-136-52088-4
- Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-42387-8, https://books.google.com/books?id=2LZ9AgAAQBAJ
- Yin Shun (1998), The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master, Wisdom Publications, ISBN 978-0-86171-133-8, https://archive.org/details/waytobuddhahood00yins
- Zürcher, Erik (1972), The Buddhist Conquest of China, Leiden: E.J. Brill
Cyfeiriadau
[golygu | golygu cod]- ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Buddhism". (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 Tachwedd 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition.
- ↑ Roach (2011).
- ↑ "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact" (PDF). gordonconwell.edu. January 2015. Archifwyd o'r gwreiddiol (PDF) ar 25 Mai 2017. Cyrchwyd 2015-05-29.
- ↑ Donner, Susan E. (April 2010). "Self or No Self: Views from Self Psychology and Buddhism in a Postmodern Context". Smith College Studies in Social Work 80 (2): 215–227. doi:10.1080/00377317.2010.486361. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233230499. Adalwyd 8 Tachwedd 2020.
- ↑ Gethin (1998), pp. 27–28, 73–74.
- ↑ Harvey (2013), p. 99.
- ↑ Powers (2007), pp. 392–393, 415.
- ↑ Williams (1989), pp. 275ff.
- ↑ Robinson & Johnson (1997), p. xx.
- ↑ Avison, Austin (October 4, 2021). "Delusional Mitigation in Religious and Psychological Forms of Self-Cultivation: Buddhist and Clinical Insight on Delusional Symptomatology". The Hilltop Review 12 (6): 1–29. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1429&context=hilltopreview.
- ↑ White, David Gordon, gol. (2000). Tantra in Practice. Princeton University Press. t. 21. ISBN 978-0-691-05779-8.
- ↑ "Candles in the Dark: A New Spirit for a Plural World" by Barbara Sundberg Baudot, p. 305
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Gethin (1998), pp. 7–8.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Gethin (1998), pp. 13–14.
- ↑ Swearer (2004), p. 177.
- ↑ Gethin (1998), pp. 15–24.
- ↑ Keown & Prebish (2010), pp. 105–106.
- ↑ Buswell (2004), p. 352.
- ↑ Lopez (1995), p. 16.
- ↑ Carrithers (1986), p. 10.
- ↑ Armstrong (2004), p. xii.
- ↑ Buddhist texts such as the Jataka tales of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, and early biographies such as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu, the Sarvāstivādin Lalitavistara Sūtra, give different accounts about the life of the Buddha; many include stories of his many rebirths, and some add significant embellishments.[15][16] Keown and Prebish state, "In the past, modern scholars have generally accepted 486 or 483 BCE for this [Buddha's death], but the consensus is now that they rest on evidence which is too flimsy.[17] Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies."[18][19][20][21]
- ↑ The exact identity of this ancient place is unclear. Please see Gautama Buddha article for various sites identified.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Gombrich (1988), p. 49.
- ↑ Bihar is derived from Vihara, which means monastery.[24]
- ↑ Edward J. Thomas (2013). The Life of Buddha. Routledge. tt. 16–29. ISBN 978-1-136-20121-9.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Gombrich (1988), pp. 49–50.
- ↑ Gombrich (1988), p. 50.
- ↑ Gombrich (1988), pp. 50–51.
- ↑ Other details about Buddha'a background are contested in modern scholarship. For example, Buddhist texts assert that Buddha described himself as a kshatriya (warrior class), but states Gombrich, little is known about his father and there is no proof that his father even knew the term kshatriya.[28] Mahavira, whose teachings helped establish another major ancient religion Jainism, is also claimed to be ksatriya by his early followers. Further, early texts of both Jainism and Buddhism suggest they emerged in a period of urbanisation in ancient India, one with city nobles and prospering urban centres, states, agricultural surplus, trade and introduction of money.[29]
- ↑ Kurt Tropper (2013). Tibetan Inscriptions. Brill Academic. tt. 60–61 with footnotes 134–136. ISBN 978-90-04-25241-7.
- ↑ Analayo (2011). A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya Volume 1 (Introduction, Studies of Discourses 1 to 90), p. 170.
- ↑ Wynne, Alexander (2019). "Did the Buddha exist?". JOCBS 16: 98–148.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Wynne (2007), pp. 8–23.
- ↑ Hajime Nakamura (2000). Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei. tt. 127–129. ISBN 978-4-333-01893-2.
- ↑ Bronkhorst (2013), pp. 19–32.
- ↑ Hirakawa (1993), pp. 22–26.
- ↑ The earliest Buddhist biographies of the Buddha mention these Vedic-era teachers. Outside of these early Buddhist texts, these names do not appear, which has led some scholars to raise doubts about the historicity of these claims.[34][36] According to Alexander Wynne, the evidence suggests that Buddha studied under these Vedic-era teachers and they "almost certainly" taught him, but the details of his education are unclear.[34][37]
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Analayo (2011). "A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya Volume 1 (Introduction, Studies of Discourses 1 to 90)," p. 236.
- ↑ K.T.S, Sarao (2020). The History of Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya. Springer Nature. t. 62. ISBN 9789811580673.
- ↑ Bronkhorst (2011), pp. 233–237.
- ↑ Schuhmacher & Woener (1991), p. 143.
- ↑ Gombrich (1988), pp. 49–51.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Keown (2003), p. 267.
- ↑ Barbara Crandall (2012). Gender and Religion (arg. 2nd). Bloomsbury Academic. tt. 56–58. ISBN 978-1-4411-4871-1.
- ↑ Tipitaka Encyclopædia Britannica (2015)
- ↑ Sarah LeVine; David N Gellner (2009). Rebuilding Buddhism. Harvard University Press. tt. 1–19. ISBN 978-0-674-04012-0.
- ↑ Gethin (1998), pp. 1–5.
- ↑ Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, 49–58, 253–271.
- ↑ Williams (1989), pp. 1–25.
- ↑ The Theravada tradition traces its origins as the oldest tradition holding the Pali Canon as the only authority, Mahayana tradition revers the Canon but also the derivative literature that developed in the 1st millennium CE and its roots are traceable to the 1st century BCE, while Vajrayana tradition is closer to the Mahayana, includes Tantra, is the younger of the three and traceable to the 1st millennium CE.[49][50]
- ↑ Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2017-12-21). Hyecho's Journey: The World of Buddhism (yn Saesneg). University of Chicago Press. t. XIV. ISBN 978-0-226-51806-0.
- ↑ Klostermaier (2010), p. 604.
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Juergensmeyer & Roof (2011), pp. 271–272.
- ↑ Wilson (2010).
- ↑ McClelland (2010), pp. 172, 240.
- ↑ Williams, Tribe & Wynne (2012), pp. 18–19, chapter 1.
- ↑ Conze (2013), p. 71, Quote: "Nirvana is the raison d'être of Buddhism, and its ultimate justification.".
- ↑ Gethin (1998), p. 119.
- ↑ Buswell (2004), pp. 711–712.
- ↑ Buswell & Gimello (1992), pp. 7–8, 83–84.
- ↑ Choong (1999), pp. 28–29, Quote: "Seeing (passati) the nature of things as impermanent leads to the removal of the view of self, and so to the realisation of nirvana.".
- ↑ Rahula (2014), pp. 51-58.
- ↑ Keown (1996), p. 107.
- ↑ Oliver Leaman (2002). Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings. Routledge. tt. 23–27. ISBN 978-1-134-68919-4.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 Buswell & Lopez (2003), pp. 708–709.
- ↑ Ronald Wesley Neufeldt (1986). Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments. State University of New York Press. tt. 123–131. ISBN 978-0-87395-990-2.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Harvey (2013), pp. 131, 32–34.
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 Harvey (2013), pp. 40–41.
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 Bucknell, Rod, "The Buddhist Path to Liberation: An Analysis of the Listing of Stages", The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 7, Number 2, 1984
- ↑ Yin-shun (2012). "The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master," p. 29. Simon and Schuster.
- ↑ See for example, Tsong-Kha-Pa (2015) "The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment", chapter three. Shambala Pubs.
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 Harvey (2013), p. 249.
- ↑ Shults (2014), p. 108.
- ↑ Harvey (2013), p. 244.
- ↑ Harvey (2013), pp. 244–245.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 Harvey (2013), pp. 83–84.
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 Williams (2005c), p. 398.
- ↑ Gowans (2013).
- ↑ Goodman, Charles (2017). "Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archifwyd o'r gwreiddiol ar 8 Gorffennaf 2010.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), p. 69.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), p. 70.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), pp. 71-74.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), p. 75.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), p. 76.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), p. 77.
- ↑ Keown (2013).
- ↑ Harvey (2000).
- ↑ Ratanakul (2007).
- ↑ Horigan (1996).
- ↑ Terwiel (2012), pp. 178–179.
- ↑ Harvey (2000), p. 80.
- ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2 Ledgerwood (2008).
- ↑ McFarlane (2001), p. 187.
- ↑ Getz (2004).
- ↑ Boin-Webb, Sara. (English trans. from Walpola Rāhula’s French trans. of the Sanskrit; 2001) "Abhidharmasamuccaya: The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy) by Asaṅga", p. 9, Asian Humanities Press.
- ↑ Vetter, Tilmann (1988), "The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism," p. 5. BRILL.
- ↑ Williams (2000), pp. 45–46.
- ↑ Werner, Karel (1977). "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136)". Religious Studies 13 (3): 289–302. doi:10.1017/S0034412500010076. https://archive.org/details/sim_religious-studies_1977-09_13_3/page/289.
- ↑ Carrithers (1986), p. 30.
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 Gombrich (1988), p. 44.
- ↑ Collins (2000), p. 199.
- ↑ Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, pp. 25–34
- ↑ White, David Gordon (2011). Yoga, Brief History of an Idea. Princeton University Press. tt. 3–5.
- ↑ Many ancient Upanishads of Hinduism describe yoga and meditation as a means t liberation.[103][104][105]