Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" (Chinese:
Emperor of China | |
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Imperial | |
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![]() Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China (r. 221–210 BC).[1] Mid 19th century depiction | |
Details | |
Style | His Imperial Majesty ( |
First monarch | Qin Shi Huang |
Last monarch | Puyi |
Formation | 221 BC (2244–2245 years ago) |
Abolition | 12 February 1912 (112 years ago) |
During the Han dynasty, Confucianism gained sanction as the official political theory. The absolute authority of the emperor came with a variety of governing duties and moral obligations; failure to uphold these was thought to remove the dynasty's Mandate of Heaven and to justify its overthrow. In practice, emperors sometimes avoided the strict rules of succession and dynasties' purported "failures" were detailed in official histories written by their successful replacements or even later dynasties. The power of the emperor was also limited by the imperial bureaucracy, which was staffed by scholar-officials, and eunuchs during some dynasties. An emperor was also constrained by filial obligations to his ancestors' policies and dynastic traditions, such as those first detailed in the Ming-era Huang-Ming Zuxun (Ancestral Instructions).
Origin and history
editDuring the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC – 771 BC), Chinese vassal rulers with power over their particular fiefdoms served a strong central monarch. Following a brutal succession crisis and relocation of the royal capital, the power of the Zhou kings (
On occasion, the father of the ascended emperor was still alive. Such an emperor was titled as the Taishang Huang ('grand imperial sire'). The practice was initiated by Qin Shi Huang, who gave the title as a posthumous name to his own father, as was already common for monarchs of any stratum of power. Liu Bang, who established the Han dynasty, was the first to become emperor while his father yet lived. It was said he granted the title during his father's life because he would not be done obeisance to by his own father, a commoner.[5][6]
Owing to political fragmentation, over the centuries, it has not been uncommon to have numerous claimants to the title of "Son of Heaven". The Chinese political concept of the Mandate of Heaven essentially legitimized those claimants who emerged victorious. The proper list was considered those made by the official dynastic histories; the compilation of a history of the preceding dynasty was considered one of the hallmarks of legitimacy, along with symbols such as the Nine Ding or the Heirloom Seal of the Realm. As with the First Emperor, it remained very common to grant posthumous titles to the ancestors of the victors.
The Yuan and Qing dynasties were founded by successful invaders of different ethnic groups. As part of their rule over China, they also went through the culturally appropriate rituals of formally declaring a new dynasty and taking on the Chinese title of Huangdi, in addition to the titles of their respective people, especially in the case of the Yuan dynasty. Thus, Kublai Khan was simultaneously khagan of the Mongols and emperor of China.
End of the imperial system
editIn 1911, the title of Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet was created to rule alongside the emperor, as part of an attempt to turn China into a constitutional monarchy.
Puyi, who had reigned as the Xuantong Emperor, abdicated on 12 February 1912, ending the Qing dynasty as well as the imperial tradition altogether, after more than 2100 years. Yuan Shikai, former President of the Republic of China, attempted to restore dynastic rule with himself as the Hongxian Emperor, however his claim to the title of emperor ended on 22 March 1916. Puyi was briefly restored for almost two weeks during a coup in 1917 but was overthrown again shortly after. He later became the emperor of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state, and was captured by the Red Army as a prisoner of war after World War II and held in the Siberian city of Chita. He was returned to China by the Soviets, and imprisoned in Fushun War Criminals Management Centre, and after he was released lived until 1967.
Had the Qing dynasty continued as an imperial house, Jin Yuzhang would currently head it. He has worked for various local councils on China, and no interest in the restoration of monarchy.[7]
Enumeration
editTraditional political theory holds that there can only be one legitimate Son of Heaven at any given time. However, identifying the "legitimate" emperor during times of division is not always uncontroversial, and therefore the exact number of legitimate emperors depends on where one stands on a number of succession disputes. The two most notable such controversies are whether Cao Wei or Shu Han had legitimacy during the Three Kingdoms, and at what point the Song dynasty ceased to be the legitimate dynasty in favor of the Yuan dynasty.[8] The Qing view, reported to Europe by the Jesuits, was that there had been 150 emperors from the First Emperor to the Kangxi Emperor.[9] Adding the eight uncontroversial emperors that followed the Kangxi Emperor would give a grand total of 158 emperors from the First Emperor to Puyi.
By one count, from the Qin dynasty to the Qing dynasty, there were a total 557 individuals who at one point or another claimed the title of Emperor, including several simultaneous claimants at various times.[10] Some, such as Li Zicheng, Huang Chao, and Yuan Shu, declared themselves the emperors, Son of Heaven and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of and overthrow the existing emperor. Among the most famous emperors were Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty, emperors Gaozu, Han Wudi as well as Guangwu of the Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang of the Tang, the Hongwu Emperor and Yongle Emperor of the Ming, and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing.[11]
Power
editThe emperor's words were considered sacred edicts (圣旨;
In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different dynasties. Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle, emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through comparative autocracy—examples include Qin Shi Huang, emperors Gaozu and Guangwu of Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang, Kublai Khan of the Yuan, and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing.
The usual method for widespread geographic power consolidation was to involve the whole family. From generation to generation, the bonds weakened between the branches of family established as local rulers in different areas. After a sufficient period of time, their loyalty could no longer be assured, and the taxes they collected sapped the imperial coffers. This led to situations like the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, who disenfranchised and annihilated the nobilities of virtually all imperial relatives whose forebears had been enfeoffed by his own ancestor, Gaozu.[12]: 76–84
Apart from a few very energetic monarchs, the emperor usually delegated the majority of decision making to the civil bureaucracy (chiefly the chancellery and the Central Secretariat), the military, and in some periods the censorate. Paranoid emperors, like Emperor Wu of Han and the Ming's Hongwu Emperor, would cycle through high government officials rapidly, or simply leave top-ranking posts vacant, such that no one could threaten their power. During other reigns, certain officials in the civil bureaucracy wielded more power than the emperor himself.[13]
The emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, was always hereditary, usually by agnatic primogeniture. As a result, many emperors ascended the throne while still children. During minority reigns, the Empress Dowager, the emperor's mother, would usually possess significant political power, along with the male members of her birth family. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers throughout Chinese Imperial history came to power by ruling as regents on behalf of their sons; prominent examples include Empress Lü Zhi of the Han, as well as the empress dowagers Cixi and Ci'an during the Qing, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. Where Empresses Dowager were too weak to assume power, or her family too strongly opposed, court officials often seized control. Court eunuchs had a significant role in the power structure, as emperors often relied on a few of them as confidants, which gave them access to many court documents. In a few places, eunuchs wielded vast power; one of the most powerful eunuchs in Chinese history was Wei Zhongxian during the Ming. Occasionally, other nobles seized power as regents.
The actual area ruled by the emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments; nonetheless, the political fiction that there was but one ruler was maintained.
Heredity and succession
editThe title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress consort (嫡长
Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven" and held a mandate to rule over everyone else in the world; but only as long as he served the people well. If the quality of rule became questionable because of repeated natural disasters such as flood or famine, or for other reasons, then rebellion was justified. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties. This principle made it possible even for peasants to found new dynasties, as happened with the Han and Ming dynasties, and for the establishment of conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven".
There has been only one lawful queen regnant in Chinese history, Wu Zetian, who briefly replaced the Tang dynasty with her own Wu Zhou dynasty. Many women, however, did become de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager. Prominent examples include Empress Dowager Lü of the Han, Empress Liu of the Song, and Empress Dowager Cixi of the Qing.
Styles, names and forms of address
editAs the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his or her subjects were to show the utmost respect in his or her presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the imperial throne, one was expected to kowtow before the emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his or her given name, even for the emperor's own mother, who instead was to use Huangdi (
The emperor was never to be addressed as you. Instead, one used Bixia (
In contrast to the Western convention of using a regnal or personal name (e.g. George V) to refer to a sovereign, the emperor was referred to in the third person simply as Huangdi Bixia (
Generally, emperors also ruled with an era name (
Consorts and children
editThe imperial family was made up of the emperor and the empress (
Ethnicity
editRecent scholarship is wary of applying present-day ethnic categories to historical situations. Most Chinese emperors have been considered members of the Han ethnicity, but there were also many Chinese emperors who were of non-Han ethnic origins. The most successful of these were the Khitans of the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), who later ruled the Qing dynasty as the Manchus, and the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty. The orthodox historical view sees these as dynasties as sinicized polities as they adopted Han culture, claimed the Mandate of Heaven, and performed the traditional imperial obligations such as annual sacrifices to Heaven for rain and prosperity. The revisionist New Qing History school, however, argues that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex and that elements of these dynasties differed from and altered "native Chinese" traditions concerning imperial rule.[14]
Gallery
editEarly dynasties and Qin
editHan, Xin and Three Kingdoms
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Emperor Gaozu of Han (256 –195 BC)
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Emperor Wen of Han (202 –157 BC)
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Emperor Jing of Han (188 BC –141 BC)
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Emperor Wu of Han (156 –87 BC)
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Emperor Zhao of Han (94 –74 BC)
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Emperor Xuan of Han (91 –49 BC)
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Emperor Yuan of Han (75 –33 BC)
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Emperor Cheng of Han (51 –7 BC)
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Emperor Ai of Han (27 –1BC)
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Emperor Guangwu of Han (5 BC–57 AD)
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Emperor Ming of Han (28– 7 5AD)
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Emperor Zhang of Han (56– 88)
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Emperor Xian of Han (181–234)
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Emperor Wen of Wei (187–226)
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Emperor Da of Eastern Wu (182–252)
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Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han (162–223)
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Emperor He of Han (79 – 13 February 106)
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Emperor Mo of Sun Wu(243 – January or February 284)
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King Wushun of Huaiyang(died 25)
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Wang Mang(45 BCE-23 CE)
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Liu Shan(207-271)
Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties
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Emperor Wu of Jin (236–290)
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Emperor An of Jin(382-419)
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Emperor Hui of Jin(259/260-307)
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Emperor Yuan of Eastern Jin(276-323)
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Emperor Wu of Liu Song (363–422)
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Emperor Gao of Southern Qi (427–482)
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Emperor Wu of Liang (464–549)
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Emperor Wu of Chen (503–559)
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Emperor Xuan of Chen (530–582)
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Emperor Wen of Chen (522–566)
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Emperor Fei of Chen (554–570)
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Emperor Houzhu of Chen (553–604)
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Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi (526–559)
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Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (543–578)
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Emperor Xiaowu of Song(19 September 430 – 12 July 464)
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Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei(371–409)
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Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei(507-531)
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Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei(July or August 440 – 20 June 465)
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Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei(October 13, 467 – April 26, 499)
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Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei(392 – 24 December 423)
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Emperor Min of Jin(300-318)
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Emperor Huai of Jin(284-313)
Sui dynasty
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Emperor Wen of Sui (541–604)
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Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618)
Tang dynasty
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Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566–635)
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Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649)
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Emperor Gaozong of Tang (628–683)
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Empress Wu Zetian of the Zhou dynasty (690–705)
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Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (656–710)
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Emperor Ruizong of Tang (662–716)
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Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (685–762)
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Emperor Shengwu of Yan (703–757)
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Emperor Suzong of Tang (711–762)
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Emperor Daizong of Tang (727–779)
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Emperor Dezong of Tang (742–805)
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Emperor Xianzong of Tang (778–820)
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Emperor Muzong of Tang (795–824)
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Emperor Jingzong of Tang (809–827)
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Emperor Wenzong of Tang (809–840)
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Emperor Wuzong of Tang (814–846)
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Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (810–859)
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Emperor Yizong of Tang (833–873)
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Emperor Xizong of Tang (862–888)
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Emperor Zhaozong of Tang (867–904)
Five dynasties
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Wang Jian (Former Shu) (847 – July 11, 918)
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Wang Yanzheng (died 951)
Northern Song dynasty
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Zhao Hongyin, posthumously made emperor by his son, the first emperor of the Song dynasty
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Emperor Taizu of Song (927–976)
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Emperor Taizong of Song (939–997)
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Emperor Zhenzong of Song (968–1022)
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Emperor Renzong of Song (1010–1063)
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Emperor Yingzong of Song (1032–1067)
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Emperor Shenzong of Song (1048–1085)
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Emperor Zhezong of Song (1077–1100)
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Emperor Huizong of Song (1082–1135)
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Emperor Qinzong of Song (1100–1161)
Southern Song dynasty
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Emperor Gaozong of Song (1104–1187)
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Emperor Xiaozong of Song (1127–1194)
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Emperor Guangzong of Song (1147–1200)
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Emperor Ningzong of Song (1168–1224)
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Emperor Lizong of Song (1205–1264)
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Emperor Duzong of Song (1240–1274)
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Emperor Gong of Song (1271–1323)
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Emperor Duanzong (1270–1278)
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Zhao Bing (1272–1279)
Yuan dynasty
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Kublai Khan (1215–1294)
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Temür Khan (1265–1307)
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Külüg Khan (1281–1311)
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Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1285–1320)
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Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür (1304–1332)
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Rinchinbal Khan (1326–1332)
Ming dynasty
editQing dynasty
editEmpire of China
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Yuan Shikai as the Hongxian Emperor of China (1915–1916)
See also
edit- Chinese emperors family tree
- Tributary system of China
- List of Chinese monarchs
- Dragon Throne
- Taishang Huang – an honorific for a retired emperor
- Celestial Empire
- Chinese Empire
- Khan of Heaven
- Emperor at home, king abroad
Notes
edit- ^ *ɢʷaŋ,[2]
- ^ *ɢʷˤaŋ
- ^ Huang (
皇 ) and Di (帝 ) were also terms applied to the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, mythical godly rulers and culture heroes credited with feats like ordering the sky and forming the first humans out of clay, as well as the invention of agriculture, clothing, astrology, music, etc.
References
edit- ^ Dillon, Michael, ed. (2017). Encyclopedia of Chinese History. Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-415-42699-2.
- ^ Baxter, William & al. Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction Archived September 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. 2011. Accessed 22 Dec 2013.
- ^ a b Nadeau, Randall L. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions, pp. 54 ff. John Wiley & Sons (Chichester), 2012. Accessed 22 December 2013.
- ^ Harrison, Thomas; Blanshard, Alastair; Bryce, Trevor; Coningham, Robin; Jenner, W. J. F.; Kaizer, Ted; Llewellen-Jones, Lloyd; Manley, Bill; Manuel, Mark (2009). Harrison, Thomas (ed.). The Great Empires of the Ancient World. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-89236-987-4.
- ^ Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, "Gaozu's Basic Annals", 61
- ^ Sima Qian (author) & Burton Watson (translator) (1971). Records of the Grand Historian of China "Volume I: The Early Years of the Han dynasty from 209 to 141 B.C. Part III: The Victor - The Basic Annals of Emperor Kao-tsu (Shih-chi 8)" p. 108-109.
- ^ "Just call me Jin, says the man who would be emperor". Sydney Morning Herald. Nine Entertainment. 27 November 2004. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
- ^ Wilkinson, Endymion. (2018). Chinese History, a New Manual. Pp 9-8, 684
- ^ Intorcetta, Prospero. (1687). Confucius Sinarum Philosophus
- ^ Barmé, Geremie (2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press. p. 594. ISBN 978-0-674-02779-4.
- ^ "
看 版 圖學 中國 歷史 ", p.5, Publisher: Chung Hwa Book Company, Year: 2006, Author:陸運 高 , ISBN 962-8885-12-X. - ^ Nylan, Michael (2016). "Mapping Time in the Shiji and Hanshu Tables". East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine. 43 (43). Brill: 61–122. doi:10.1163/26669323-04301004. JSTOR 90006244. S2CID 171943719.
- ^ Hucker, Charles O. (1985). A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 4–102. ISBN 978-957-638-285-7.
- ^ Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule
Further reading
edit- Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.