Kangiten or Kankiten (Japanese:
Kangiten (Nandikeshvara) | |
---|---|
| |
![]() Dual-bodied (Sōshin) Kangiten | |
Other names | Shōten / Shōden ( Shōten- / Shōden-sama ( |
Japanese | |
Affiliation | Deva Vairochana Buddha Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara Amritakundalin Sanbō Kōjin |
Abode | Mount Kailash (Keira-sen) |
Mantra | Oṃ hrīḥ gaḥ huṃ svāhā (On kiri(ku) gyaku un sowaka) |
Weapon | axe, trident |
Symbols | kangidan (modak), daikon, kinchaku |
Gender | Male |
Genealogy | |
Parents |
|
Siblings | Senayaka (brother, later reincarnated as wife; incarnation of Avalokiteshvara) Skanda (brother) Kigeiten (sister) |
Consort | Senayaka |
Equivalents | |
Hindu equivalent | Ganesha |
Although Kangiten (Shōten) and Ganesha share a common origin and a number of traits, there are also some marked differences between the two. For instance, the Buddhist Vinayaka was (at least at first) negatively portrayed as the creator of obstacles and the leader of a class of malignant demons who obstructed Buddhist practice called vinayakas, though later tradition made an attempt to distinguish between the vinayakas and their lord, who became seen as a manifestation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Kannon in Japanese) and/or the buddha Vairochana.
Kangiten enjoys both a positive and negative reception in Japan. On the one hand, he is popularly revered as an extremely efficacious god who grants whatever is asked of him without fail, including impossible wishes. He is also said to watch over those who have a karmic connection with him from the moment of their conception, serving as their invisible companion throughout their lives. On the other hand, he is considered to be still bound by base passions and desires (kleshas) and thus is sometimes also regarded as a rather volatile, demanding god who is quick to punish those who have offended him.
Unlike his Hindu counterpart, whose image is prominently displayed in public, Kangiten is considered too sacred to be seen: images of the deity in temples are kept hidden from view, rituals centered on him are performed by qualified monks out of public sight, and lay devotees are discouraged from venerating iconographic depictions of the god at home.
While he is sometimes depicted as an elephant-headed single male deity like Ganesha, he is more commonly portrayed as a male-female couple (both with elephant heads) standing in an embrace in an iconographic depiction known as the Dual(-bodied) Kangiten (
Names
editKangiten inherited many names and characteristics from the Hindu god Ganesha (with whom he shares a common origin), though the name 'Ganesha' (IAST: Ganeśa) itself was never applied to the Buddhist deity, who was generally referred to by the earlier names 'Ganapati' (Gaṇapati) or 'Vinayaka' (Vināyaka).[5][7] 'Vinayaka' was transcribed into Chinese characters as 毘那
In Japan, the deity is commonly known as 'Shōten' / 'Shōden' (
In this article, the names 'Vinayaka', 'Ganapati', 'Shōten' and 'Kangiten' are used interchangeably for the Buddhist deity, with 'Kangiten' specifically denoting the deity's dual form.
Historical development and literature
editAs demon and deity
editSeveral theories have been advanced regarding the origins of the Hindu deity Ganesha, who first undisputably appears in the historical record in his classic form around the early 4th to 5th centuries CE. One theory is that Ganesha gradually came to prominence in connection with the Vinayakas, a group of four troublesome demons mentioned in the Manava-Grihyasutra (a text belonging to the Manava school of the Black (Krishna) Yajurveda) and the Mahabharata.[5][16][17]
Whereas in Hinduism Ganesha was regarded mainly as a remover of obstacles, Buddhists originally emphasized his destructive side as the creator of obstacles and his function as a demon king. Early instances of the name 'Vinayaka' in Buddhist texts for instance have a negative connotation, denoting a malignant being (or beings) who is both the cause and the symbolic representation of obstacles or impediments.[18] A note in the Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra[a] by the Tang period monk Yijing defines Vinayaka as an "obstructive deity" (
The emergence of Esoteric (Tantric) Buddhism and its spread to Nepal, Tibet, and eventually to East Asia saw Vinayaka acquire a more positive role as a subjugator of demons. In Tibet, the deity was worshiped for the removal of obstacles and the granting of wealth and was at times portrayed as a wrathful, multiarmed deity wielding weapons. A Nepalese text provides a list of spells invoking Ganapati to not only bestow wealth but also to cause harm to enemies.[24] Vinayaka is also depicted in a wall painting in Mogao Cave 285 in Dunhuang as a protector of Buddhism with the gods Maheshvara (Shiva) and Skanda.[25][26]
Introduction to Japan
editThe two primary mandalas of East Asian esoteric Buddhism (Tangmi) also feature Vinayaka(s). In the Womb Realm (Garbhakoshadhatu) Mandala (based on the Mahavairochana Tantra), Vinayaka is found among the retinue of the directional deity Ishana with the god Mahakala (both of whom are derived from the Hindu Shiva),[27][28][29] while the outer sections of the Vajra Realm (Vajradhatu) Mandala (based on the Vajrashekhara Sutra) contains four groups of five deities distributed along the four directions, each group containing one vinayaka – here interpreted as emanations of the buddha Vairochana who expressly adopt the form of vinayakas in order to subjugate the obstacle-causing demons.[30]
Vinayaka's inclusion in these mandalas – brought to Japan by Kūkai (774–835), the founder of Shingon Buddhism – facilitated his introduction to Japan, where he (like most other Hindu deities assimilated in Buddhism) was first considered a minor guardian of the two mandalas. By the Heian period (794–1185), Vinayaka emerged as a besson (
Emergence of Dual Vinayaka (Kangiten)
editThe late Heian period saw the rise in popularity of the Dual-bodied Kangiten (Sōshin / Sōjin Kangiten) image, in which Vinayaka (heretofore depicted as a single figure, often with two arms but sometimes also four or six[32]) is shown as an embracing male-female couple.[2]
The origins of this imagery, unique to East Asia, have perplexed scholars for years; there is no concrete evidence about the inception of this form. It has been compared with the sexual yab-yum iconography found in Nepal and Tibet,[2] although it is markedly different from them in that both figures have animal heads (yab-yum representations are restricted to fully humanoid deities; the zoocephalic Vinayaka-Ganapati was thus not portrayed in this form, though erotic depictions of him do exist) and are shown fully clothed.[33][34] Lode Rosseels suggests that the Dual Vinayaka form may have originated from an iconographic type attested in Xinjiang (Chinese Turkestan) and Dunhuang in the 8th century showing Ganapati with four legs (representing the deity's union with his shakti in a non-sexual fashion),[35] which was "reinterpreted by the Chinese in accordance with popular Taoist ideals ... which probably resulted in the restoration of the four-legged and four-armed form to two almost identical elephant-headed deities in a nonsexual embrace."[36]
The form is first attested in 7th–8th century Chinese esoteric Buddhist texts. The Dharani-samuchchaya Sutra (Taishō Tripitaka 901),[c][37] translated into Chinese by a monk named Atigupta (or Atikuta) in 653–654 CE describes a ritual to worship the Dual Vinayaka, which was replicated by Amoghavajra (705–774) in his ritual text Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka, the Great Saintly Deva of Bliss (T. 1266).[d][38][39] The text gives instructions for the fashioning of both the dual-bodied and the six-armed single Vinayaka images and specifies the types of offerings one should give to the deity.[39][40]
Two texts attributed to Bodhiruchi (trad. 672–727), the Sutra of the Mantras and Rituals of the Gana (T. 1267),[e][41] and the Larger Sutra of the Mantras and Rituals of the Gana (T. 1268),[f][42] contain the same guidelines for rituals and depictions of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka. In the former text, Vinayaka teaches a multitude of deities and demons who have congregated at Mount Kailash a one-syllable mantra, followed by a description of a ritual dedicated to the Dual Vinayaka similar to that found in Amoghavajra's text. Vinayaka's demon followers promise the deity to grant the wishes of whoever repeats the one-syllable mantra. The Larger Gana Sutra meanwhile contains additional rituals to propitiate the Dual Vinayaka as well as the four-armed form of the deity. It also has rituals aimed at attracting love, gaining wisdom, or destroying enemies.[43][44]
A ritual manual by Shubhakarasimha (637–736) titled Ritual of the Mantras and Offerings that Converted the Great Saintly Deva of Bliss King Vinayaka, the Dual-Bodied Maheshvara (T. 1270)[g][45] mentions new myths regarding the Dual-bodied Vinayaka not found in Indian sources and is the first text that explicitly associates the deity with the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin / Kannon). It also prohibits placing his images in Buddhist altar rooms.[5][40][46][47]
Other esoteric texts on Vinayaka
edit(Dainichi Nyorai)
(Jūichimen Kannon)
The Sutra of the Divine Incantations of the Eleven-Headed [Avalokiteshvara] (T. 1071),[h][48] translated by the monk Xuanzang in 656 CE, expounds the rite of bathing an image of Vinayaka with perfumed water.[21]
A short text attributed to Amoghavajra titled Tantra on the Practice of the Secret Ritual of the Dual-bodied Bodhisattva Great Saintly Deva of Bliss, the Samaya-Body Copenetrated by Meditation and Wisdom of the Tathagata Mahavairochana (T. 1271)[i][49] describes the Dual Vinayaka ritual as a procedure to gain four kinds of benefits or siddhis (protection, gain, love and subjugation) which come in three grades: the highest grade confers kingship; the second grade provides wealth; the third grade provides sufficient food and clothing. In parallel to the material results, the tantra classifies ritual practitioners into three categories: the highest class of adept are allowed to learn the rite's inner secrets, the middle are permitted to read the text, while the lowest may not conduct the ritual on their own but should let a more developed practitioner do it for them. The text notably prescribes alcoholic beverages (considered taboo in exoteric Buddhism), dubbed the "water of bliss" (
Amoghavajra's disciple Hanguang (含光) composed a text in 747 called Secret Essence of the Yoga-siddhi of the Vinayaka Ganapati (T.1273)[j][52] in which he continued his master's work. He writes that every ritual should be preceded by an invocation to Vinayaka-Ganapati, the god of beginnings. This text identifies both Vinayaka and Avalokiteshvara as manifestations of the all-pervading body of the buddha Vairochana, with the pair being taken to symbolize both Vairochana's material and spiritual aspects.[53][54]
A ritual manual attributed to Bodhiruci with the title The Rite of the Nine-Eyed Deva, the Provisional Manifestation of the Golden Ganapati[k] describes a wrathful manifestation of Vinayaka with four arms and three heads (each with three eyes) apparently based on Tibetan forms of the deity. The manual gives instructions for the fashioning of the image, which should then be kept hidden from view at all times and offered radishes, cakes, sweets, and honey.[55][56] A sutra translated by Vajrabodhi known as The Dharani Sutra of the Golden Ganapati (T. 1269)[l][57] gives instructions on how to depict a six-armed Ganapati, which should also be concealed and offered sweets such as modak (
An apocryphal sutra dating from the early 11th century, The Attainment Rites of Vinayaka taught by Vajrasattva (T. 1272)[m],[58] contains black magic spells invoking vinayakas aimed at the destruction of one's enemies. This text was deemed so gruesome that Emperor Zhenzong (reigned 997–1022) banned its circulation in China in 1017.[5][59]
A minor astrological or divinatory text apocryphally attributed to Prajnachakra, another disciple of Amoghavajra who became the master of the Tendai monk Enchin (814–891), known as The Rules for the Diviner's Board of the Great Saintly Bliss Deva (T. 1275)[n][60] describes the outline of an esoteric divination board (
Kūkai, who brought Shubhakarasimha's, Vajrabodhi's, and Amoghavajra's ritual manuals with him to Japan, is also said to have himself authored a text on Vinayaka titled the Shōten Procedural (
From the medieval period onwards
editSince the Heian period, Vinayaka (Shōten / Kangiten) featured in state-sponsored official rites. These ceremonies were originally a prerogative of the imperial court: an edict dating from 785 prohibited the private performance of rites focused on a number of deities, Shōten being one of them. However, he was at times also invoked against the imperial house: in The Tale of Hōgen, the nobleman Fujiwara no Yorinaga (1120–1156) requests the performance of rituals centered on Shōten, Uchchhushma (Ususama Myōō) and Vajrakumara (
Shōten was commonly invoked in rites of subjugation. Legend relates that the Tendai monk Son'i (
In 1329, Emperor Go-Daigo performed a subjugation ritual invoking the god against the Kamakura shogunate; after the shogunate's regent (shikken) Hōjō Takatoki committed suicide during the Siege of Kamakura in 1333, the emperor ordered Ashikaga Takauji to establish a memorial sanctuary in Hōkai-ji, a temple in Kamakura notable for being a cultic center of Kangiten, to placate Takatoki's spirit. After the Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336), this particular Kangiten became an object of worship of the Ashikaga shogunate and the remnants of the Hōjō clan.[70][71] In 1433, the monks of Mount Hiei conducted a Shōten rite against the sixth Ashikaga shōgun Yoshinori.[64]
Historical figures known to have been devoted to Shōten (and whose successes were sometimes credited to him) include the famous warlords Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, the Edo period merchants Kinokuniya Bunzaemon and Takadaya Kahei, the daimyō and political reformer Matsudaira Sadanobu, and wealthy business families such as the Mitsui, the Sumitomo, and the Kōnoike.[68][72] The 15th century Noh playwright Konparu Zenchiku was also devoted to the god since his youth; during a twenty-one day retreat at Fushimi Inari Shrine with his wife (a daughter of his master Zeami) in 1467, the 63-year old Zenchiku consumed a talisman of the deity while praying for the "harmonious union of yin and yang, husband and wife." Upon being told by a priest that his prayer was not answered because he had no karmic connection with Shōten, Zenchiku repented of his negligence and renewed his vow, eventually receiving a dream that deepened his faith.[73]
Little is known regarding premodern devotion to Shōten outside of the ruling classes other than that it spread during the Edo period, all the while still remaining relatively arcane.[74] A certain legend claims that Ieyasu attempted to stake a claim on the deity by promoting rumors of Shōten being a fearsome god whose efficacy is counterbalanced by his fickleness and quick temper, thus keeping the cult's growth among the general populace in check. This, the story claims, is the reason why he is not as popular in the Kantō region (the Tokugawa seat of power) as he is in western Japan, where he is widely worshiped even today.[68]
Perhaps in reaction against the deity's reputation among the public as one who grants any and all material desires, various sources emphasize the ineffectiveness and even danger of performing rituals on one's own, without the aid of a qualified priest. The Tendai monk Kōkei (977–1049) warned that while the benefits brought by the god are very real, he is swift to curse negligent practitioners; it is thus better for people in this Final Age not to worship him.[74] The 18th-century tradesman and kokugaku scholar Tsumura Sōan writes the following regarding Kangiten:
Kangiten is an Indian god, and because he brings many benefits, many are those who perform his rite by themselves. But even if one's spirit of faith is deep, it is better not to perform by oneself, by chanting dhāraṇīs and the like. Whatever their spirit of faith, ordinary people, when they practice without sufficient respect, commit a severe offence. One must ask a monk to recite prayers. ... Kangiten is the lord of the world of desire. As he made a vow to help even evil people abandoned by the Worthies and the Buddhas, when evil people address their prayers to him, even if they are about to be beheaded, he can save them. Because he is the lord of the world of desire, he fulfills all prayers, even those made with a thought of desire. (But because there are in his retinue unruly gods that are easily offended by lack of respect, he must be approached with caution.) Even among Ritsu monks who perform the ritual of Kangiten, many fall into sexual desire. Generally speaking, in India, this is a rite performed by profanes.[74]
A notable modern-day Shōten devotee is the entrepreneur and Buddhist scholar Hayashiya Tomojirō (
Mythology
editA number of texts relate different stories regarding the origin and meaning of the Dual Vinayaka image.
According to the story found in Shubhakarasimha's ritual manual, Maheshvara's wife Uma (Parvati) gave birth to three thousand children: from her left side was born 1,500 evil deities headed by King Vinayaka (毘那
In another legend recorded in a medieval Japanese iconographic compendium known as the Kakuzenshō (
A third tale somewhat similar to the above found in another Japanese text portrays Vinayaka (Kangi) as the head of a vast army of vinayaka demons who lived in a mountain called Mount Vinayaka, also known as "Elephant-headed Mountain" (
Yet another story relates that Vinayaka was originally a courtier in an Indian kingdom nicknamed the "Long-Nosed Minister" (
Association with other deities
editKangiten is commonly identified as an "assimilation / emanation body" (
Whereas some sources identify Shōten as Maheshvara's son – which reflects Shiva's and Ganesha's relationship in Hindu mythology – others also identify him as Maheshvara's incarnation. The Shingon monk Kakuban for instance wrote:
"[In the dual form] the male deva is a transformation body of Maheshvara. He drives off both celestial and earthly demons and distributes profit in this world and the next. The female figure is a transformation of Avalokiteshvara's eleven-faced form, the most potent of her thirty-three forms. These two standing in conjugal embrace represent the union of yin and yang. That they have elephant heads and human bodies is to show the interpenetration of all ten realms."[81]
In another text, 'Daijizaiten' is one of the various names for the deity:
"Because he is perfectly free in the six supranormal powers and secret dharmas, he is called Shōten. Because he is perfectly free in wisdom, he is called Daijizaiten. Because he achieves love, he is called the dual-bodied Vinayaka king. Because he produces the five cereals, he is called the six-armed deva."[94]
This identification of Shōten with Daijizaiten was however criticized in the hagiography of Shingon Ritsu monk Tankai (1629–1721), the founder of Hōzan-ji (Ikoma Shōten), which relates that Tankai, after having doubts about Shōten's true nature, had a dream in which the god explained that he is neither Daijizaiten nor a mere vinayaka demon but an avatar of Vairochana; although he is called 'Vinayaka' because the vinayakas are members of his retinue, he, unlike them, is not a malignant demon of obstacles. Tankai's doubts were eventually resolved after finding a copy of the Kakuzenshō, which claimed that identifying Shōten with Maheshvara-Daijizaiten is "a great error" and that "this divinity's special characteristic is that of lord of siddhis, thus he is called 'Jizaiten'. He ought not to be confused with any other jizaiten."[14][95][96]
A tradition of the Jimon Tendai temple of Mii-dera meanwhile associates Shōten with the demon king Mara, also known as Takejizaiten (
Shōten was also equated with Sanbō Kōjin, in that the latter was also considered to be a violent deity (kōjin) of obstacles. According to a work attributed to the Tendai monk Annen called the Ritual of Vinayaka in Four Sections (Shibu Binayaka-hō, 四部毘那夜迦法), when the construction of Jetavana Monastery suffered a series of delays due to obstructive evil spirits, their leader, a fierce-looking eight-headed deity, appeared before the Buddha's disciple Shariputra, calling himself Nagyōtosajin (
In an apocryphal sutra titled Dharani Sutra of the Buddha's Teaching for the Greatest Protection of the Country by Ugaya's Sudden Attainment Wish-Fulfilling Jewel,[o][108] Ugajin (who is closely associated with Benzaiten) is said to manifest himself as the deities Dakiniten, Daishōten (Vinayaka), and Aizen Myōō. Another text identifies Vinayaka with the goddess of Itsukushima Shrine, who was also identified with Benzaiten.[73]
During the medieval period, Benzaiten, Dakiniten, and Shōten were also combined into a single figure which served as the main focus of an esoteric imperial accession rite in which the three deities were worshiped as one known as the Joint Ritual of the Three Devas (
Shōten was also identified with various Japanese gods such as Susanoo, Amaterasu, Sarutahiko and his wife Ame-no-Uzume (an identification which may have partly stemmed from Sarutahiko's long nose calling to mind Shōten's elephant trunk), or the crossroad deities known as Dōsojin (which are sometimes represented as a human couple).[111]
Apart from Avalokiteshvara, various wrathful deities such as Jinja Daishō (
Gonrui and jitsurui
editMedieval Japanese thought classified Buddhist devas and native kami into two types: gonsha (
Esoteric texts distinguish three kinds of Kangiten rituals, each of which classified Vinayaka and his consort differently:
- The first one considers the male as a jitsurui deity and the female as a provisional incarnation. The honzon or focus of worship in this rite is thus called "provisional and real devas" (
権 実 の天 , gonjitsu no ten). - In the second, both deities are considered jitsurui; the honzon in this case is called "devas both real" (倶実の
天 , kujitsu no ten). This type of ritual is considered the most effective but also the most dangerous. - The third one visualizes both deities as gonrui; its honzon is therefore known as "devas both provisional" (倶権の
天 , kugon no ten). Although its effects are not as quick or apparent, it is considered the safest of the three types.
These distinctions merely reflect the perspective of the practitioner; the image used in these rituals does not change.[118][119]
Iconography
editSingle and dual forms
editShōten (Kangiten) is mainly depicted either alone or, more commonly, embracing his consort. When shown by himself, he is represented with either two, four, six, eight or even twelve arms, holding various attributes such as a vajra, an axe, a noose, a club, a trident, a wheel, a broken tusk or a radish (which may have itself developed from the tusk attribute).[4][120][121] He notably does not have the Hindu Ganesha's characteristic huge belly nor the latter's animal mount (vāhana), the mouse.[122] Some depictions portray him with one tusk similar to Ganesha, although others show both his tusks intact.[123]
Among the various representations of the deity, the single-bodied Shōten image is considered the most difficult and even dangerous to own and maintain due to the god's wild nature; an image of the Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara (Jūichimen Kannon) is thus also installed in temples that enshrine the single-bodied Shōten in the belief that this pacifies the deity. Images of this type are employed in an esoteric rite known as the Kangiten Water Ritual (
The Dual-bodied Kangiten image usually features both the male and female figures with elephant heads, though a few examples show the female figure as boar-headed.[119][124] The genders of the pair are not explicit but hinted in the iconography.[4][2][125] The female is often shown wearing a crown and resting her feet over that of the male, who rests his head on her shoulder. Some variants may show the male and female gazing at each other, looking over each other's shoulders, wearing a single shared garment, or standing side by side.[126][127] A few images of the deity classified as gonjitsu depictions may depict the female alone stepping on the male's foot (symbolizing the jitsurui deity Vinayaka being subjugated by Avalokiteshvara's provisional incarnation), while kugon depictions – where both the male and female are interpreted as incarnations of bodhisattvas – may show both the two figures stepping on the other's foot.[128] This symbolizes the unity and non-duality of contrasting genders and opposites.[126][127]
Although Amoghavajra's Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka recommends that Vinayaka's image be made of pewter, brass, or wood and be about five or seven sun (approximately 17–20 centimeters) high,[129] most sculptures of Kangiten venerated in Japanese temples are much smaller, measuring around one to two sun (3–6 centimeters) on average. Because they are periodically ritually bathed in oil, many are made of metals such as gold, silver, bronze, or iron; wooden images (
Vajra vinayakas
editThe twenty deities depicted in the outer sections of the Diamond Realm mandala include Vinayaka (shown holding a radish and a modak), a boar-headed deity known as Vajramukha (
- Vajravikirana / Vajrachinna (
金 剛 摧天, Kongō-zaiten; Skt. Vajracinna, "destroying vajra deva"): The vinayaka of the east, shown holding an umbrella. His name reflects his role as the destroyer of obstacles caused by malevolent vinayakas. Also known as Sangaiten (傘 蓋 天 , "parasol deva") or Sangai Binayaka (傘 蓋 毘那夜 迦, "parasol vinayaka").[30][131][102] - Vajrabhakshana (
金剛 食 天 , Kongō-jikiten /金剛 飲食 天 , Kongō-onjikiten; Skt. Vajrabhakṣana, "vajra deva of drink and food"): Situated in the south, this vinayaka holds a garland of flowers in his right hand and sometimes a noose in his left hand. Also called Keman Binayaka (華鬘 毘那夜 迦, "flower garland vinayaka").[30][131][102] - Vajravasin (
金剛 衣 天 , Kongō-eten /金 剛 衣服 天 , Kongō-ebukuten; Skt. Vajravāsin, "vajra deva of clothing"): The vinayaka of the west, depicted holding a bow and arrow. Also called Kōkyūsen Binayaka (拘 弓箭 毘那夜 迦, "bow-and-arrow-wielding vinayaka").[30][131][102] - Vajrajaya (
金剛 調伏 天 , Kongō-chōbukuten /調伏 天 , Chōbukuten; "subduing [vajra] deva"): Situated in the north, shown holding a sword or a staff or club in his right hand and a jewel in his left. Also known as Kōtō Binayaka (拘 刀 毘那夜 迦, "sword-wielding vinayaka") or Konjiki Ganahattei (金色 迦那鉢 底 , "golden Ganapati"). Although all four are depicted with elephant heads in the Diamond Realm mandala, the Kakuzenshō portrays three of the four vinayakas as human figures, with Vajrajaya being the only one shown as elephant-headed.[30][131][102]
Other depictions
editA mandala centered on Kangiten shows the dual-bodied form of the deity at the center of a four-petaled lotus arm-in-arm as if dancing, surrounded by the four directional vinayakas and the guardian devas of the eight directions. Two six-armed vinayakas are sometimes also depicted at the mandala's bottom part.[134]
A depiction commonly found in hanging scrolls and talismans (ofuda) known as Kangi Dōji (
Worship
editBīja and mantra
editThe bīja or seed syllable used to represent Shōten is gaḥ (Devanagari: गः; Japanese pronunciation: gyaku), written in Siddham script. It is usually written double (गःगः), symbolizing his dual form.[138][139]
The mantra considered to be the standard in Japanese Buddhism, identified in Amoghavajra's Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka as Vinayaka's "heart mantra" (
Sanskrit (romanized) | Devanagari | Japanese (romanized) | Hiragana |
---|---|---|---|
Oṃ hrīḥ gaḥ huṃ svāhā[129] | ॐ ह्रीः गः हुं स्वाहा | On kiri(ku) gyaku un sowaka[139][140] | おん きり(く) ぎゃく うん そわか |
The mantra is traditionally interpreted as Vinayaka's seed syllable flanked by those of Avalokiteshvara ( / ह्रीः, hrīḥ) and Amritakundalin ( / हुं, huṃ), the two figures who subjugated him.[139][141]
Rituals
editShōten is ritually worshiped via a number of rites:
Oil Bath (Yokuyu-ku)
editThe Oil Bath Ritual (
The ritual is symbolically interpreted as representing Vinayaka's conversion and initiation (abhisheka) into the Buddhist path, during which the former demon king's evil nature and mental defilements (kleshas) are washed away, thereby revealing his true nature as a manifestation of Vairochana Buddha. Likewise, it is believed to purify the practitioner and devotees as well.[148][149][150]
Flower-Water Offering (Kesui-ku)
editThe Flower-Water Ritual (
In practice, however, the Kesui-ku performed in many Shōten temples denotes a ceremony mostly similar in structure to the Oil Bath rite but without the bathing of the deity's image in oil. In this case, Shōten is offered not just flowers and water, but also other types of foodstuffs.[152]
Other rites
editIn some temples, rituals such as the Daihannya Tendoku (
Offerings
editLike his Hindu counterpart Ganesha, Shōten is held to be partial to sweets.[157] Common offerings to Shōten include rice wine (sake), radishes (daikon), and sweets filled with red bean paste (anko) such as kangidan (
Daikon radishes are interpreted as representing the three poisons (specifically dvesha or hatred); offering the vegetable to the deity is thus held to be a meritorious purificatory act. At the same time, because radishes are also popularly believed to aid digestion,[160] they also symbolize Shōten's action of removing the three poisons.[161]
Reputation
editShōten is popularly regarded as a powerful, efficacious deity who readily grants whatever is asked of him, including impossible or even immoral wishes.[9][162] He is sometimes called "Vairochana's final expedient incarnation" (
An oft-repeated urban legend claims that worshiping Shōten is a double-edged sword as it uses up seven generations' worth of good karma at once; in other words, it confers immediate gratification to the worshiper but also eventually brings about their downfall. However, in his A Guide to Shōten Devotion, Hayashiya Tomojirō criticized this as a "baseless, superstitious legend" that should be ignored.[165][166]
In the past, Shōten's cult was widespread among gamblers, actors, geisha, and people in the pleasure quarters.[4] During the Edo period, he was also widely venerated by merchants, especially vegetable-oil sellers.[2] Even today, he is mainly worshiped for success in love, relationships, and business.[167][72] Devotion to Shōten is particularly prevalent in the Kansai area (especially in Osaka), where it rivals that of the god Ebisu (another deity worshiped for commercial success) in popularity.[72]
Perhaps to curb abuses and superstitious ideas that could stem from the popular image of Shōten as a god who grants each and every wish, various authors such as Hayashiya have stressed the importance of deepening one's devotion beyond simply asking for worldly benefits.[165][166] Tendai monk Haneda Shukai for instance writes that the god's true gift to his worshipers is non-attachment (naiṣkramya;
Shōten and impurity
editShōten is also considered to abhor impurity (kegare). For instance, ritually impure persons (e.g. those who had recently come in contact with death or menstruating women) are discouraged from visiting him in temples for a set period of time.[166][169] (Similar taboos exist in Shinto, which also lays great emphasis on purity, but is otherwise rare in Japanese Buddhism, which was closely associated with death and the afterlife due to its having a near-monopoly on funerary practices.[170]) Temples dedicated to Shōten also do not have a cemetery (a common fixture in many Japanese temples) within their precincts, nor do monks who perform Shōten rites conduct funerals.[169] Temples also forbid devotees from placing ofuda of the deity in 'unclean' rooms (e.g. bedrooms or kitchens) or in altars (butsudan) where deceased family members are venerated.[159][171]
As hidden god
editA notable characteristic of Shōten is the air of secrecy surrounding him. Unlike Ganesha, whose image is prominently worshiped in many temples and homes, most images of Shōten are kept hidden inside miniature shrines (
Popular belief holds that encountering Shōten (i.e. learning about him or getting an opportunity to venerate him) is only possible if one has a karmic connection (
"Birth as a human being is hard to attain and yet I have unexpectedly attained it; Shōten's dharma is difficult to encounter and yet I am fortunate to have encountered it. Having arrived at this opportune moment [to worship him], I cannot hold back my tears."[q][177]
Shōten is also described in medieval texts as a "placenta god" (
Lay devotion
editSome people as part of their devotion may observe vows (
Opinions differ regarding the place of abstinence in Shōten worship. On the one hand, Hayashiya claimed that "although Shōten does not necessarily reject one's wishes if one does not practice abstinence, it is true that they are granted faster if one does."[164] Haneda, on the other hand, criticized it as well as the taking of extreme vows (especially when made with materialistic goals in mind) as harmful practices that only attract vinayaka demons (in effect making them a kind of Faustian bargain), asserting that they do not represent authentic devotion to Shōten.[180]
Temples
editShōten is worshiped in many Shingon and Tendai Buddhist temples throughout Japan. The following are two of the most important places of worship dedicated to the deity in Japan, traditionally reckoned as the "Three Greatest Shōten [Temples]" (
- One of the sub-temples of Sensō-ji, the oldest and most famous Buddhist temple in Tokyo; also known as Matsuchiyama Shōden (
待 乳 山 聖天 ). Legend claims that the hillock the temple stands on miraculously emerged out of the earth in the year 595. The temple itself was supposedly founded six years later (601), after the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara appeared in the form of Kangiten and put an end to the severe drought that affected the area.[181][182]
- Hōzan-ji (
宝山寺 ) (Ikoma, Nara Prefecture) – Shingon Risshū
- Also known as Ikoma Shōten (
生駒 聖 天 ), located on the summit of Mount Ikoma in Nara Prefecture. Claimed to have originally been founded as a temple to the deity Achala (Fudō Myōō) by the ascetic En no Gyōja in the year 664, it was reestablished in 1678 by the monk Tankai, who designated Kangiten as the guardian (鎮守 , chinju) of the temple complex.[183][184] While Achala is still officially the temple's main deity (honzon), Hōzan-ji is more famous as a cult center of Shōten, with business people and other worshipers coming to worship him at his sanctuary (聖 天堂 , Shōten-dō) in the precincts.[1][153][184][185]
Other notable temples to Shōten include:
- Kangi-in (
歓喜 院 ) / Menuma Shōden-zan (妻沼 聖 天山 ) (Menuma, Kumagaya, Saitama Prefecture) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū
- Founded in 1179 by military commander Saitō Sanemori. The temple's honzon – donated to it in 1197 by Sanemori's nephew Miyaji no Kunihira – takes the form of a monastic staff (khakkhara, shakujō) head with an image of the dual Kangiten flanked by two attendants.[186][187]
- Shinjō-in (
心 城 院 ) / Yushima Shōden (湯島 聖 天 ) (Bunkyō, Tokyo) – Tendai - Daifukushō-ji (
大福 生 寺 ) / Ōi Shōten (大井 聖 天 ) (Higashi-Ōi, Shinagawa, Tokyo) – Tendai[188] - Fukushō-in (
福生 院 ) / Fukuromachi O-Shōten (袋町 お聖天 ) (Naka-ku, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture) – Shingon (Chisan-ha) - Daifukuden-ji (
大 福田寺 ) / Kuwana Shōten (桑名 聖 天 ) (Higashikata, Kuwana, Mie Prefecture) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū - Sōrin-in (
双 林 院 ) / Yamashina Shōten (山科 聖 天 ) (Yamashina-ku, Kyoto) – Tendai - Uhō-in (
雨 宝 院 ) / Nishijin Shōten-gū (西陣 聖 天宮 ) (Kamigyō-ku, Kyoto) – Shingon (Sennyū-ji-ha) - Ryōtoku-in (
了 徳 院 ) / Urae Shōten (浦江 聖 天 ) (Fukushima-ku, Osaka) – Tō-ji Shingon-shū - Shōen-ji (
正圓寺 ) (Abeno-ku, Osaka) – Shingon (independent) - Hōan-ji (
法案 寺 ) / Nipponbashi Shōten (日本橋 聖天 ) (Chūō-ku, Osaka) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū - Saikō-ji (
西 江 寺 ) (Minoh, Osaka) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū
See also
editNotes
edit- ^
大 孔雀 咒王經 , pinyin: Dàkǒngquè zhòuwáng jīng; Japanese: Daikujaku juō kyō. - ^
大 日經 疏, pinyin: Dàrì jīng shū; Japanese: Dainichi kyō shō.[20] - ^
陀羅尼 集 經 , pinyin: Tuóluóní-jí jīng; Japanese: Darani-shū kyō. - ^
大聖 歡喜 雙 身 毘那夜 迦法, pinyin: Dàshèngtiān huānxǐ shuāngshēn Pínàyèjiā fǎ; Japanese: Daishōten kangi sōshin Binayaka hō. - ^
使 咒法經 , pinyin: Shǐzhòufǎ jīng; Japanese: Shi juhō kyō. - ^
大使 咒法經 , pinyin: Dàshǐzhòufǎ jīng; Japanese: Daishijuhō kyō. - ^
大聖 歡喜 雙 身 大 自 在天 毘那夜 迦王歸依 念誦 供養 法 , pinyin: Dàshèng Huānxǐ shuāngshēn Dàzìzàitiān Pínàyèjiā-wáng guīyī niànsòng gòngyǎng fǎ; Japanese: Daishō Kangi sōshin Daijizaiten Binayaka-ō kie nenju kuyō hō. - ^
十 一 面 神 咒心經 , pinyin: Shíyīmiàn shénzhòu xīnjīng; Japanese: Jūichimen shinju shingyō. - ^
摩 訶毘盧遮那 如來 定 惠 均等 入 三昧耶身雙身大聖歡喜天菩薩修行祕密法儀軌, pinyin: Móhēpílúzhēnà Rúlái dìnghuì jūnděng rù sānmèiyé-shēn shuāngshēn Dàshèng Huānxǐtiān púsà xiūxíng mìmì fǎ yíguǐ; Japanese: Makabirushana Nyorai jōei kintō nyū samaya-shin sōshin Daishō Kangiten Bosatsu shugyō himitsu hō giki. - ^ 毘那
夜 迦誐那 鉢 底 瑜伽 悉地品 祕 要 , pinyin: Pínàyèjiā énàbōdǐ yújiā xīde pǐn mìyào; Japanese: Binayaka Ganahattei yuga shicchi bon hiyō. - ^
現金 色 迦那婆 底 九 目 天 法 , pinyin: Quánxiàn jīnsè Jiānàpódǐ Jiǔmùtiān fǎ; Japanese: Gongen konjiki Ganabachi Kumokuten hō. - ^
金色 迦那鉢 底 陀羅尼 經 , pinyin: Jīnsè Jiānàbōdǐ tuóluóní jīng; Japanese: Konjiki Ganahachi darani kyō. - ^
金 剛 薩埵說 頻 那 夜 迦天成就 儀 軌經, pinyin: Jīngāngsàduǒ-shuō Pínnàyèjiātiān chéngjiù yíguǐ jīng; Japanese: Kongōsatta-setsu Binayakaten jōju giki kyō. - ^
聖 歡喜天 式法 , pinyin: Shèng Huānxǐtiān shìfǎ; Japanese: Shō Kangiten shikihō. - ^
仏説 最 勝 護国 宇賀 耶頓得 如意宝珠 陀羅尼 経 ; Japanese: Bussetsu saishō gokoku Ugaya tontoku nyōihōju darani-kyō. - ^ Two examples: ofuda issued by Shinjō-in (Yushima Shōden) in Tokyo ([1]) and those distributed by Zentsū-ji in Kagawa Prefecture ([2]).
- ^ 「
適 々難 受受人界 之 生 、幸 難 逢逢聖天 之 法 。機縁 之 至 感涙 難 禁 。」 - ^ This number is purely symbolic; in reality, many temples claim to be one of these three.
References
editCitations
edit- ^ a b c d e Buhnemann (2006), pp. 19–20.
- ^ a b c d e f Hanan (2003), pp. 245–6.
- ^ a b Krishan (1999), p. 163.
- ^ a b c d e Frédéric (2002), p. 470.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "
歡喜天 (Gaṇeśa)". Digital Dictionary of Buddhism. Retrieved 2021-06-02. - ^ Pandey, Rajyashree (22 February 2007). "Performing the body in medieval Japanese narratives: Izumi Shikibu in Shasekishū". Japan Forum. 19 (1): 119. doi:10.1080/09555800601127361. S2CID 143714073.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 85.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 81–82, 86–87.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 88.
- ^ a b "
歓喜天 (Kangiten)". コトバンク (Kotobank). Retrieved 2021-08-01. - ^ a b Krishan (1999), p. 164.
- ^ a b c Faure (2015b), p. 77.
- ^ Krishan (1999), pp. 164, 168.
- ^ a b c d Faure (2015b), p. 99.
- ^ Haneda (2017), p. 12.
- ^ Krishan (1999), p. vii.
- ^ Thapan (1997), pp. 26–28.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 15.
- ^ Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research (2005), pp. 52, 217.
- ^ "
大 日経 疏 (Dainichikyō-shō)". コトバンク (Kotobank). Retrieved 2021-08-01. - ^ a b Faure (2015b), pp. 87–88.
- ^ "Achala (Buddhist Deity) – Blue, Standing". Himalayan Art. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 47, 94–98.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 18.
- ^ "Mogao Cave 285 (Western Wei 534-556AD)". Dunhuang Academy. Archived from the original on 2021-08-04. Retrieved 2021-08-04.
- ^ "
伊 舎 那 天 (Ishanaten)". Kōyasan Reihōkan Museum (高野山 霊宝 館 ) (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-08-04. - ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 46–47.
- ^ Schumacher, Mark (2017). "Daikokuten Iconography in Japan". A-to-Z Photo Dictionary of Japanese Religious Sculpture and Art (www.onmarkproductions.com). Retrieved 2021-08-04.
- ^ a b c d e f Faure (2015b), pp. 91–92.
- ^ Sanford (1991), p. 287–8, 296–7.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 91.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 16–18.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 100.
- ^ Agrawala, Prithvi K. (1978). "On a Four-Legged Icon of Gaṇapati from Ghosai". Artibus Asiae. 40 (4). Artibus Asiae Publishers: 307–310. doi:10.2307/3249822. JSTOR 3249822.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 19–20.
- ^ "
陀羅尼 集 經 法 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ "
大聖 歡喜 雙 身 毘那夜 迦法". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ a b Sanford (1991), pp. 291–293.
- ^ a b c Krishan (1999), pp. 167–169.
- ^ "
使 呪法 經 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ "
大使 呪法 經 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 294–295.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 20.
- ^ "
大聖 歡喜 雙 身 大 自 在天 毘那夜 迦王歸依 念誦 供養 法 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Sanford (1991), p. 295.
- ^ a b Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 20–21.
- ^ "
十 一 面 神呪 心 經 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ "
摩 訶毘盧遮那 如來 定 惠 均等 入 三昧耶身雙身大聖歡喜天菩薩修行祕密法儀軌". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 295–296.
- ^ a b Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 21.
- ^ "
摩 訶毘盧遮那 如來 定 惠 均等 入 三昧耶身雙身大聖歡喜天菩薩修行祕密法儀軌". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 320.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 21–22.
- ^ "
權 現金 色 迦那婆 底 九 目 天 法 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ a b Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 22–23.
- ^ "
佛說 金色 迦那鉢 底 陀羅尼 經 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ "
金剛 薩埵說 頻 那 夜 迦天成就 儀 軌經". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 22.
- ^ "
聖 歡喜天 式法 ". CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection (漢文 大藏經 ). Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 296.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 108–109.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 23.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), pp. 75–76.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), pp. 75–76, 88.
- ^ "ご
本尊 聖 天 さまについて". Shinjō-in (Yushima Shōden) Official Website. Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Miya (1976), pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b c Nitta, Gien. "
聖天 信仰 の本義 と時代 背景 を求 めて (Shōten shinkō to jidai haikei o motomete)" (PDF). Hozan-ji (Ikoma Shōten) Official Website (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ Miya (1976), p. 4.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 76–77.
- ^ "
境内 のご案内 ". Hōkai-ji Official Website (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-08-08. - ^ a b c d Haneda (2017), pp. 64–65.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 105.
- ^ a b c Faure (2015b), p. 103.
- ^ "
林屋 友次 郎 (Hayashiya, Tomojirō)". コトバンク (Kotobank). Retrieved 2021-08-09. - ^ "
林屋 友次 郎 博士 について".大聖 歓喜天 様 (聖 天 様 )ご利益 まとめサイト (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-08-09. - ^ "
巴 利 语辭典 (Pali Dictionary)". Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Retrieved 2021-09-01. - ^ Singh, K.S., ed. (2003). People of India: Gujarat, Part One (Volume XXII). Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. p. 1028. ISBN 9788179911044.
- ^ Singh, Vipul (2008). The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination, Second Edition. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. p. 97. ISBN 9788131717530.
- ^ Sanford (1991), p. 297.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 101.
- ^ "
覚 禅 抄 (Kakuzenshō)". コトバンク (Kotobank) (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-08-09. - ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 297–298.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 102.
- ^ Sanford (1991), p. 299.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 87.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 377.
- ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 298–299.
- ^ Yamamoto (2018), pp. 220–221.
- ^ McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan (PDF) (Thesis). University of California, Berkeley. p. 134.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 98.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 37–40.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 101–106.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 89.
- ^ Sanford (1991), p. 305.
- ^ Chaudhuri (2003), p. 100.
- ^ a b Haneda (2017), pp. 210–211.
- ^ "Pāpīyas". The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism. Soka Gakkai. Retrieved 2021-08-23.
- ^ Hōnen (2011). The Promise of Amida Buddha: Hōnen's Path to Bliss. Translated by Atone, Jōji; Hayashi, Yōko. Wisdom Publications. p. 450. ISBN 9780861716968.
- ^ Phra Thepyanmongkol (2011). Samatha Vipassanā Meditation in Accordance with the Four Foundations of Mindfulness to Reach Lord Buddha's Dhammakayas and Nirvana. Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram. pp. 185–186. ISBN 9789747560664.
- ^ Benton, Catherine (2006). God of Desire: Tales of Kamadeva in Sanskrit Story Literature. State University of New York Press. pp. 167–168. ISBN 9780791465660.
- ^ a b c d e Rosseels (2015–2016), p. 29.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 104–105.
- ^ a b Faure (2006), pp. 258–260.
- ^ Kanemoto (2002), pp. 81–92.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 217.
- ^ Kanemoto (2002), pp. 85–86.
- ^ Ludvik, Catherine (2007). "Researching Benzaiten". Japanese Studies Around the World. 2006. International Research Center for Japanese Studies: 13–32. doi:10.15055/00003743.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 236–238.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 240–254.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 105, 112–113.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 376.
- ^ Haneda (2017), p. 220.
- ^ "【
神 供 段 】神 々への供養 2". Kanazawa Hōsen-ji Official Website. 21 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-25. - ^ Yamakage, Motohisa (2010). de Leeuw, Paul; Rankin, Aidan (eds.). The Essence of Shinto: Japan's Spiritual Heart. Translated by Gillespie, Mineko S.; Gillespie, Gerald L.; Komuro, Yoshitsugu. Kodansha International. p. 166. ISBN 9784770050083.
- ^ "
権現 (Gongen)". Flying Deity Tobifudo (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in Official Website). Retrieved 2021-08-25. - ^ Hardacre, Helen (2017). Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 182.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 102–103.
- ^ a b Haneda (2017), p. 54-57.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 87, 89–91.
- ^ Sanford (1991), p. 293.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 86.
- ^ a b Haneda (2017), pp. 58–59.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 83–84.
- ^ Krishan (1999), p. 167.
- ^ a b Sanford (1991), p. 289.
- ^ a b Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 35–36.
- ^ Haneda (2017), p. 55.
- ^ a b c Sanford (1991), p. 291.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 176–177.
- ^ a b c d e "
諸 仏 解説 ・微細 会 ". Mandala Dualism. Retrieved 2021-08-26. - ^ Krishan (1999), pp. 165–166.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 226–227.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 94.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 94–94, 113–114.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 59–60.
- ^ Kodama, Giryū (2009).
印 と梵字 ご利益 ・功徳 事典 聖 なる象徴 に表 された諸 尊 の姿 と仏 の教 え (In to bonji goriyaku / kudoku jiten: sei naru shōchō ni hyōsareta shoson no sugata to hotoke no oshie). Gakken Publishing. pp. 36–37. ISBN 9784054041875. - ^ Haneda (2017), p. 39.
- ^ a b c Kitao (2017), pp. 107.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 157–158.
- ^ "
軍 荼利明王 を奉祀 ". Senzō-in (泉 蔵 院 ) Official Website. 2016-04-28. Retrieved 2021-08-28. - ^ Sanford (1991), pp. 291–292.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 175–176.
- ^ Haneda (2017), p. 178.
- ^ Ichikawa, Chikō (1979).
仏 さまの履歴 書 (Hotoke-sama no rirekisho). Mizushobo. p. 170. - ^ "
御 祈祷 ". Shinjō-in (Yushima Shōten) Official Website. - ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 175–176, 179.
- ^ Haneda (2017), p. 179.
- ^ "
山科 聖天 浴 油 会 (毎年 1月 ~12月 )". Yamashina Shōten – Sōrin-in Official Website. 18 January 2019. Retrieved 2021-08-29. - ^ Hayashiya, Tomojiro.
聖天 信仰 の手引 き (Shoten shinkō no tebiki). Daifukushō-ji. p. 160. - ^ Ruppert, Brian Douglas (2020). Jewel in the Ashes: Buddha Relics and Power in Early Medieval Japan. Brill. p. 122. ISBN 9781684173389.
- ^ a b c Haneda (2017), pp. 188–189.
- ^ a b Sanford (1991), p. 323.
- ^ ""Daihannya Tendoku-e" Performed by Karyōbinga Shōmyō Kenkyūkai". The Ho Center for Buddhist Studies. Stanford University. Retrieved 2021-08-29.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 190–191.
- ^ "
祈祷 案内 ". Matsuchiyama Shōden Official Website. Retrieved 2021-08-29. - ^ a b c Haneda (2017), p. 151.
- ^ Goldstein, Darra, ed. (2015). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-19-931361-7.
- ^ a b "
祈祷 中 の心得 とお札 について". Matsuchiyama Shōden Official Website. Retrieved 2021-08-30. - ^ "Daikon: The great radish of Japan". The Japan Times. 2015-12-18. Retrieved 2021-08-27.
- ^ "
三 大 煩悩 " (PDF). いちょう (Ichō) – July 2021 (343). Matsuchiyama Shōden: 1. - ^ a b "
大日如来 最後 の方便 身 ".大聖 歓喜天 様 (聖 天 様 )ご利益 まとめサイト. Retrieved 2021-08-30. - ^ "
吉野 聖天 尊像 ". Sakuramoto-bō (櫻本 坊 ) Official Website. Retrieved 2021-08-30. - ^ a b "
信仰 問答 ".大聖 歓喜天 様 (聖 天 様 )ご利益 まとめサイト. Retrieved 2021-08-30. - ^ a b "
聖天 信仰 の心得 十 二 条 ".大聖 歓喜天 様 (聖 天 様 )ご利益 まとめサイト. Retrieved 2021-08-30. - ^ a b c d "
聖天 信仰 の心得 " (PDF). いちょう (Ichō) – April 2018 (304). Matsuchiyama Shōden: 1. - ^ Mohapatra, Satyen (2007-02-21). "Japan wants to encourage studies of Hindu gods". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 2007-02-23. Retrieved 2021-09-01.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 29–32, 136–146.
- ^ a b Haneda (2017), pp. 256–260.
- ^ Richie, Donald (2009-01-25). "Buddhism: a religion for death". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2021-08-31.
- ^ a b Haneda (2017), pp. 148–149.
- ^ Rosseels (2015–2016), pp. 36–37.
- ^ "
開 創 840年 御開 扉 ". Menuma Shōden-zan Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-05. - ^ "
妻沼 聖 天山 界隈 ". くまがやねっと情報 局 (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-09-05. - ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 114–115.
- ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 131–132.
- ^ Kakuban (1909). "
歓喜天 講 式 (Kangiten Kōshiki)". In Kobayashi, Shōsei (ed.).興 教 大師 全集 (Kōgyō Daishi Zenshū) (in Japanese). Kaji Sekai Shisha. pp. 444–445. - ^ Faure (2006), pp. 260–261.
- ^ "
断 ち物 " (PDF). いちょう (Ichō) – June 2021 (343). Matsuchiyama Shōden: 1. - ^ Haneda (2017), pp. 107–123.
- ^ "
聖 天 様 鎮座 のいわれ". Matsuchiyama Shōden Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-08. - ^ "
待 乳 山 聖天 ".浅草 名所 七 福神 . Retrieved 2021-09-08. - ^ "
寶山寺 について". Hōzan-ji (Ikoma Shoten) Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-08. - ^ a b "
宝山寺 ".役行者 霊 蹟 札所 会 . Retrieved 2021-09-08. - ^ "
宝山寺 (ほうざんじ)". Kintetsu Railway. Archived from the original on 2021-09-08. Retrieved 2021-09-08. - ^ "Shodenzan Temple" (PDF). Menuma Shōden-zan Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
- ^ "
聖天 山 縁起 ". Menuma Shōden-zan Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-08. - ^ "
三 宝山 神護 院 大福 生 寺 (通称 :大井 聖天 )". Tendai-shū Tokyo Kyōku. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
Works cited
edit- Buhnemann, Gudrun (2006). "Erotic forms of Ganeśa in Hindu and Buddhist Iconography". In Koskikallo, Petteri; Parpola, Asko (eds.). Papers of the World Sanskrit Conference held in Helsinki, Finland, 13 July, 2003. Script and Image: Papers on Art and Epigraphy. Vol. 11. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 19–20. ISBN 81-208-2944-1.
- Chaudhuri, Saroj Kumar (2003). Hindu Gods and Goddesses in Japan. Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd. ISBN 978-8-1793-6009-5.
- Faure, Bernard (2015b). Protectors and Predators: Gods of Medieval Japan, Volume 2. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5772-1.
- Faure, Bernard (2006). "The Elephant in the Room: The Cult of Secrecy in Japanese Tantrism". In Scheid, Bernhard; Teeuwen, Mark (eds.). The Culture of Secrecy in Japanese Religion. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-54689-8.
- Frédéric, Louis (2002) [originally published in 1996]. "Kangi-ten". Japan Encyclopedia. Translated by Rothe, Kathe. Harvard University Press.
- Hanan, Patrick, ed. (2003). Treasures of the Yenching: the Seventy-fifth Anniversary Exhibit Catalogue of the Harvard-Yenching Library. Harvard-Yenching Library, Harvard University. ISBN 978-9-6299-6102-2.
- Haneda, Shukai (2017). Anata no negai o kanaeru saikyō no shugoshin: Shōden-sama (あなたの
願 いを叶 える最強 の守護神 聖 天 さま) (in Japanese). Daihōrinkaku. ISBN 978-4-8046-1394-9. - Kanemoto, Takushi (2002). "
真言宗 における荒神 の問題 (Shingon-shū ni okeru kōjin no mondai)" (PDF).現代 密教 (Gendai Mikkyō) (in Japanese). 15. Chisan Denbō-in: 81–92. - Kitao, Ryūshin (2017-10-17). "
諸 仏 の種 字 ・真言 ⑤ ≪天 部 ≫ (Shobutsu no shuji / shingon, 5: Tenbu)" (PDF). 『大 法輪 』2017年 11月 号 (Daihōrin – November 2017) (in Japanese). Daihōrinkaku: 106–107. - Krishan, Yuvraj (1999). Gaṇeśa: Unravelling An Enigma. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-1413-4.
- Miya, Tsugio (1976). "
歓喜天 霊験 記 私 考 (Kangiten Reigenki shikō)" (PDF). The Journal of Art Studies (in Japanese). 305. National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo: 1–19. - Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, ed. (2005). The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra (PDF). Translated by Giebel, Rolf W. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
- Rosseels, Lode (2015–2016). Gaṇeśa's Underbelly: From Hindu Goblin God to Japanese Tantric Twosome (Master's thesis). Ghent University.
- Sanford, James H. (1991). "Literary Aspects of Japan's Ganesha Cult". In Brown, Robert (ed.). Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God. Albany: State University of New York. ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
- Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-195-4.
- Yamamoto, Hiroko (2018).
変成 譜 中世 神仏 習合 の世界 (Henjōfu: Chūsei shinbutsu shūgō no sekai). Kodansha. ISBN 978-4-0651-2461-1.
External links
edit- Ikoma Shōten (Hōzan-ji) Official Website (in Japanese)
- Matsuchiyama Shōden (Matsuchiyama Honryū-in) Official Website (in Japanese)
- Menuma Shōden (Shōden-zan Kangi-in) Official Website
- Nishijin Shōten (Hokkō-zan Uhō-in) Official Website (in Japanese)
- Nishinomiya Shōten-ji Official Website (in Japanese)
- Yushima Shōden (Ryusei-dō Shinjō-in) (in Japanese)