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Sichuanese dialects - Wikipedia
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Sichuanese dialects

For the Sichuanese variant of Standard Mandarin, see Sichuanese Standard Chinese. For the extinct Sinitic language formerly spoken in what is now Sichuan and Chongqing, also known as Old Sichuanese, see Ba-Shu Chinese.
"Sichuan language" redirects here. For the southern African Bantu language, see Tswana language.

Sichuanese or Szechwanese (simplified Chinese: 四よん川かわ话; traditional Chinese: 四よん川かわ話はなし; Sichuanese Pinyin: Si4cuan1hua4; pinyin: Sìchuānhuà; Wade–Giles: Szŭ4-ch'uan1-hua4), also called Sichuanese/Szechwanese Mandarin (simplified Chinese: 四川しせん官かん话; traditional Chinese: 四川しせん官話かんわ; pinyin: Sìchuān Guānhuà), is a branch of Southwestern Mandarin spoken mainly in Sichuan and Chongqing, which was part of Sichuan Province until 1997, and the adjacent regions of their neighboring provinces, such as Hubei, Guizhou, Yunnan, Hunan and Shaanxi. Although "Sichuanese" is often synonymous with the Chengdu-Chongqing dialect, there is still a great amount of diversity among the Sichuanese dialects, some of which are mutually unintelligible with each other. In addition, because Sichuanese is the lingua franca in Sichuan, Chongqing and part of Tibet, it is also used by many Tibetan, Yi, Qiang and other ethnic minority groups as a second language.[2][3][4]

Sichuanese
Szechwanese
四川しせん话
PronunciationChengdu [sz˨˩˧tsʰwan˦˥xwa˨˩˧] Chongqing [sz˨˩˦tsʰwan˥xwa˨˩˦]
Native toChina
RegionSichuan, Chongqing and their neighboring provinces
EthnicitySichuanese people
Dialects
Language codes
ISO 639-3(a proposal to use scm was rejected in 2018[1])
GlottologNone
Sichuanese in Greater China
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Sichuanese is more similar to Standard Chinese than southeastern Chinese varieties but is still quite divergent in phonology, vocabulary, and even grammar.[2] The Minjiang dialect is especially difficult for speakers of other Mandarin dialects to understand.[5][6][7][8] Sichuanese can be further divided into a number of dialects: Chengdu–Chongqing, Minjiang, Renshou–Fushun, and Ya'an–Shimian. The dialect of Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province and an important central city, is the most representative dialect of Southwestern Mandarin and is used widely in Sichuan opera and other art forms of the region.

Modern Sichuanese evolved due to a great wave of immigration during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644): many immigrants, mainly from Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi and Guangdong, flooded into Sichuan bringing their languages with them.[9] The influence of Sichuanese has resulted in a distinct form of Standard Chinese that is often confused with "real" Sichuanese. Sichuanese, spoken by about 120 million people, would rank tenth among languages by number of speakers (just behind Japanese) if counted as a separate language.

Geographic distribution and dialects edit

Sichuanese is mainly spoken in and around the Sichuan Basin, which includes almost all of Sichuan Province and Chongqing Municipality except for some Tibetan and Yi inhabited areas. It is also spoken in the border regions of Sichuan's neighboring provinces: northern Yunnan and Guizhou, southern Shaanxi and western Hubei.

However, it is possible to divide Sichuanese into four sub-dialects according to the preservation or distribution of the Middle Chinese checked tone: the Minjiang dialect (岷江小片しょうへん), which preserves the checked tone; the Chengdu-Chongqing dialect (成なり渝片へん), in which the checked tone has merged into the light level tone; the Renshou-Fushun dialect (仁ひとし富とみ小片しょうへん), which merges the checked tone into the departing tone; and the Ya'an–Shimian dialect (雅みやび棉わた小片しょうへん), in which the checked tone is merged into the dark level tone.[2][10]

The Minjiang, Ya'an–Shimian and Renshou–Fushun dialects are spoken mainly in South and West Sichuan, regions in which the inhabitants have significantly more indigenous Sichuanese descent than those of North and East Sichuan. Thus, these dialects are often referred as Old Sichuanese, as the preserve many characteristics of Bashu,[which?] the extinct language formerly spoken by the first Sichuanese Han Chinese people. The Chengdu-Chongqing dialect, named after the two largest cities in greater Sichuan, are spoken in a contiguous area mainly in North and East Sichuan. It is often referred as New Sichuanese because it exhibits fewer characteristics of the Bashu language.[11]

 
map showing locations of Sichuanese dialects
Name Characteristics Spoken areas
Chengdu–Chongqing dialect entering tone distributed into light level tone North and East Sichuan, the northeastern part of Chengdu Plain, several cities or counties in southwestern Sichuan (Panzhihua, Dechang, Yanyuan, Huili and Ningnan), Southern Shaanxi and Western Hubei
Minjiang dialect entering tone preserved 44 cities or counties in Minjiang River valley or along the Yangtze River in South and West Sichuan, Xichang, Xichong, Yanting, Shehong, northern Yunnan and northern Guizhou
Renshou–Fushun dialect entering tone distributed into departing tone 8 cities or counties in Tuo River valley (Renshou, Jingyan, Weiyuan, Zigong, Rongxian, Fushun, Neijiang and Longchang), Junlian and Mianning
Ya'an–Shimian dialect entering tone distributed into dark level tone Ya'an (prefecture-level city) in West Sichuan

History edit

Like many of the southern provinces in China, Sichuan was fully sinicized by the end of the Tang dynasty.[12] The modern variety of Chinese spoken in the region formed relatively recently.[12] In the thirteenth century, the population of Sichuan dropped precipitously, suspected to be due in part to a series of plagues and Mongol invasions.[12] The population did not recover until it was replenished by subsequent migrations from Hubei, as well as Xiang, Gan and Hakka-speakers in the following centuries. These varieties largely supplanted the earlier varieties of Chinese in Sichuan,[12] known as Ba–Shu Chinese or Old Sichuanese. Like Min Chinese, Ba-Shu Chinese was different from the Middle Chinese of the Sui, Tang and Song dynasties, but instead a divergent dialect group independently descended from the Old Chinese of the Han dynasty,[citation needed] which formed a substratum that influenced the formation of the modern dialect group and helps to explain the distinctiveness of Modern Sichuanese within the Mandarin dialect continuum.[citation needed]

Phonology edit

Tones edit

There are five phonemic tones in Sichuanese: dark level tone, light level tone, rising tone, departing tone and entering tone (or checked tone). In some regions the checked tone of Sichuanese has been merged into another tone, which is very different from standard Mandarin, whose checked tone has been merged irregularly into the other four tones. According to Phonology of Sichuan dialect (四川しせん方言ほうげん音おん系けい), among all the 150 Sichuanese-speaking cities and counties, 48 keep the checked tone while the other 102 have only four tones.[13] Particularly, in some sub-dialects of the Minjiang dialect (such as the Yingjing dialect), the departing tone has developed into two different tones: a colloquial tone (which is similar to the second tone as a characteristic of Ba-Shu: 平声ひょうしょう似に去ざ) and a literary tone (which is the same as the Chengdu dialect).[14]

The tone contours of the Sichuanese dialects are highly and quite different from those of Beijing Mandarin. In Sichuanese, the first tone (dark level tone) is a high level tone (like Beijing), the second tone (light level tone) is a low falling tone (the mirror image of Beijing), the third tone (rising tone) is a high falling tone and the fourth tone (departing tone) is a low or mid rising tone (interchanged compared to Beijing) and the fifth tone (entering tone) is mid or high if it's not merged, as shown in the chart below.[13]

Sub-dialects 1st tone 2nd tone 3rd tone 4th tone 5th tone
Chengdu ˥ 55
˦˥ 45[15]		 ˨˩ 21 ˥˧ 53 ˨˩˧ 213 merged into the 2nd ˨˩
Chongqing ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21 ˦˨ 42 ˨˩˦ 214 merged into the 2nd ˨˩
Leshan ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21 ˥˨ 52 ˨˨˦ 224 ˧ 3 (checked)
Yingjing ˥ 45 ˩˨˩ 121 ˥˧ 53 ˩ 11 (colloquial)
˨˩˧ 213 (literary)		 ˧ 33
Luzhou ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21 ˦˨ 42 ˩˧ 13 ˧ 33
Ya'an ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21 ˦˨ 42 ˩˦ 14 merged into the 1st ˥
Zigong ˥ 55 ˧˩ 31 ˥˧ 53 ˨˦ 24 merged into the 4th ˨˦

In the areas which keep the entering tone, the five tones of Sichuanese are nearly identical to the values of 5 of the 6 tones of the indigenous Southern Qiang language.

Initials edit

Initials (or syllable onsets) are initial consonants of possible syllables. There are 21 initials in the Chengdu dialect of Sichuanese (academically referred as Standard Sichuanese). Four Sichuanese initial consonants do not exist in Beijing: [z], [v], [ŋ] and [nʲ]. On the other hand, five initials in Beijing do not exist in Sichuanese: [tʂ], [tʂʰ], [ʂ], [ʐ] and [l].

The following is the initial consonant inventory of Sichuanese, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet, and under every IPA symbol in the inventory below there is the transcription of that sound in Sichuanese Pinyin and a Chinese character using that initial:[13]

Labial Coronal Alveolo-palatal Velar
Plosive plain /p/
b 贝 		/t/
d 得とく 		/k/
g 古ふる
aspirated /pʰ/
p 配はい 		/tʰ/
t 套 		/kʰ/
k 可か
Affricate plain /ts/
z 早はや 		/tɕ/
j 价
aspirated /tsʰ/
c 草くさ 		/tɕʰ/
q 巧たくみ
Nasal /m/
m 没ぼつ 		/n/
n 路みち 		/ɲ/
ȵ 你 		/ŋ/
ng 我わが
Fricative Voiceless /f/
f 发 		/s/
s 是ぜ 		/ɕ/
x 小しょう 		/x/
h 好こう
Voiced /v/
v 五ご 		/z/
r 如
Zero ∅
儿

Finals edit

A final, the remainder of syllable after the initial, consists of an optional medial glide, a vowel and an optional final consonants. There are 36 finals in the Chengdu dialect of Sichuanese. Four Sichuanese finals do not exist in Beijing: [ɛ], [iai], [uɛ], and [yo]. On the other hand, three Beijing finals do not exist in Sichuanese: [ɤ], [iŋ], and [əŋ].

The following is the inventory of Sichuanese finals, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet, and under every IPA symbol in the inventory below there is the standard orthography of that sound in Sichuanese Pinyin and a Chinese character using that final:[13]

-Ø -i or -u nasal finals
Ø- /z̩/
i 日び 		/ɚ/
er 二に 		/a/
a 大だい 		/o/
o 我わが 		/ɛ/
e 黑くろ 		/ai/
ai 街がい 		/ei/
ei 批 		/au/
ao 包つつみ 		/əu/
ou 走はし 		/an/
an 烦[16] 		/ən/
en 樱 		/aŋ/
ang 帮 		/oŋ/
ong 亩
i- /i/
i 一いち 		/ia/
ia 牙きば 		/iɛ/
ie 叶かのう 		/iai/
iai 介かい 		/iau/
iao 标 		/iəu/
iu 九きゅう 		/ian/
ian 变[16] 		/in/
in 兵へい 		/iaŋ/
iang 量りょう
u- /u/
u 五ご 		/ua/
ua 瓜ふり 		/uɛ/
ue 国こく 		/uai/
uai 乖 		/uei/
ui 类 		/uan/
uan 段だん[16] 		/uən/
un 春はる 		/uaŋ/
uang 光こう
y- /y/
ü 鱼 		/yo/
üo 药 		/ye/
üe 绝 		/yan/
üan 鲜[16] 		/yn/
ün 泳およげ 		/yoŋ/
iong 蓉

Tense vowels for checked tone edit

There is a discrepancy between Old Sichuanese and New Sichuanese in terms of finals. In the "old" Minjiang dialect, the stop consonants for checked-tone syllables in Middle Chinese have developed into tense vowels to create a phonemic contrast, and in several cities and counties the tense vowels are followed by a glottal stop to emphasize the contrast. Meanwhile, the checked tone has disappeared in other Sichuanese dialects.[17] The following table shows the tense vowels of Minjiang dialect's three sub-dialects, spoken in Luzhou, Qionglai and Leshan, and a comparison with other Sichuanese dialects is also presented.

example Minjiang Ya'an–Shimian Chengdu-Chongqing Renshou–Fushun
Luzhou Qionglai Leshan Luding Chengdu Chongqing Zigong
搭 [æ] [æ] [æ] [a] [a] [a] [a]
说 [ɵ] [ʊ] [ʊ] [o] [o] [o] [o]
黑くろ [e] [æ] [e] [ɛ] [ɛ] [ɛ] [ɛ]
踢 [ie] [ie] [ie] [i] [iɛ] [i] [i]
出で [ɵ] [ʊ] [ʊ] [u] [u] [u] [u]
欲よく [yɵ] [yʊ] [yʊ] [y] [yo] [yu] [yi]
湿しめ [ə] [ə] [ə] [z̩] [z̩] [z̩] [z̩]
掐 [iæ] [iɐ] [iæ] [ia] [ia] [ia] [ia]
刮 [uæ] [uɐ] [uæ] [ua] [ua] [ua] [ua]
铁 [ie] [ie] [ie] [iɛ] [iɛ] [iɛ] [iɛ]
获 [ɵ] [uæ] [æ] [uɛ] [uɛ] [uɛ] [ue]
阅 [yɵ] [ye] [yʊ] [yɛ] [yɛ] [yɛ] [yɛ]
药 [yɵ] [yʊ] [yʊ] [yo] [yo] [yo] [yo]

Literary and colloquial readings edit

The existence of literary and colloquial readings (文ぶん白しろ异读), is a notable feature in Sichuanese and some other Sinitic varieties, such as Cantonese or Hokkien. In Sichuanese, colloquial readings tend to resemble Ba-Shu Chinese (Old Sichuanese) or Southern Old Mandarin, while literary readings tend to resemble modern standard Mandarin. For example, in the Yaoling dialect (摇铃话), the colloquial reading of "物もの" (means "things") is [væʔ],[18] which is very similar to its pronunciation of Ba-Shu Chinese in the Song dynasty (960–1279).[19] Meanwhile, its literary reading, [voʔ], is relatively similar to the standard Mandarin pronunciation [wu]. The table below shows some examples of Chinese characters with both literary and colloquial readings in Sichuanese.[20]

Example Colloquial Reading Literary Reading Meaning Standard Mandarin Pronunciation
在ざい /tɛ˨˩˧/ /tsai˨˩˧/ at /tsai˥˩/
提ひさげ /tia˥/ /tʰi˨˩/ lift /tʰi˧˥/
去さ /tɕʰie˨˩˧/ /tɕʰy˨˩˧/ go /tɕʰy˥˩/
锯 /kɛ/ /tɕy˨˩˧/ cut /tɕy˥˩/
下した /xa˨˩˧/ /ɕia˨˩˧/ down /ɕia˥˩/
横よこ /xuan˨˩/ /xuən˨˩/ across /xəŋ˧˥/
严 /ŋan/ /ȵian/ strict /iɛn˧˥/
鼠ねずみ /suei/ /su˥˧/ rat /ʂu˨˩˦/
大だい /tʰai/ /ta˨˩˧/ big /ta˥˩/
主あるじ /toŋ/ /tsu˥˧/ master /tʂu˨˩˦/

Vocabulary edit

Only 47.8% of Sichuanese vocabulary is in common with the Beijing dialect on which Standard Chinese is based; indeed Sichuanese shares more vocabulary with the Xiang and Gan varieties of Chinese, even though Sichuanese is usually classified as a dialect of Mandarin.[2]

The vocabulary of Sichuanese has three main origins: Ba-Shu (or Ancient Sichuanese), Middle Chinese and the languages of the immigrants, including Proto-Mandarin from Hubei, Xiang, Gan and Hakka, which were brought to Sichuan during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Recently, many loanwords have been introduced to Sichuanese from standard Mandarin and English. Meanwhile, new Sichuanese words are developing in large cities, such as Chengdu and Chongqing, which then spread at a dramatic speed through Sichuan.[21][22] "雄お起おこり" (xiong2qi3) (meaning "to cheer someone on") is a typical example of a novel Sichuanese word, equivalent to "加か油ゆ" (jiāyóu) in standard Mandarin. "耙耳朵" (Pá ěr duo) is a word exclusive to Sichuanese, which means "henpecked husbands". A standard Mandarin equivalent of "耙耳朵" is "妻つま管かん严" (qī guǎn yán). The prototype of "耙耳朵" comes from a kind of bicycle with "ears" in Chengdu, which was first invented by men in Chengdu in order to make their wives sit more comfortably. There are still a few such bikes on streets of Chengdu.

Common Vocabulary difference
Sichuanese Dialect Standard Chinese Sichuanese Dialect Standard Chinese
歪ひずみ(waī) 凶きょう恶(xīong è) 巴ともえ(bā) 粘ねば贴(zhān tiē)
左ひだり(zuǒ) 跑音(pǎo yīn) 费(feì) 调皮(tíao pí)
撵(nǐan) 追つい赶(zhuī gǎn) 刨(páo) 拨弄(bō nòng)
号ごう(hào) 批阅(pī yuè) 摸(mō) 拖延(tuō yán)
巴ともえ适(bā shì) 好こう(hǎo) 盐巴(yán bá) 盐(yán)
瓢ひさご羹あつもの(píao gēng) 勺しゃく(sháo) 𤆵和かず(pā huó) 软(ruǎn)
嘎嘎(ga ga) 肉にく(roù) 几下(jǐ xià) 快かい(kuaì)
估到(gū dào) 逼(bī) 啪啦(pā lā) 堆うずたか(duī)

Relation with other Chinese languages edit

The Chengdu dialect is usually taken as a representative of Sichuanese.[2] Sichuanese shares the most similar vocabulary with Yunnanese, a dialect of Southwestern Mandarin spoken in the neighboring province. However, the relationship between Sichuanese and Northern Mandarin dialects, including the standard language, is weaker than the relationship between Xiang and Gan.

In terms of vocabulary, Sichuanese has the second closest relationship with Xiang. The two varieties share a large number of exclusively unique words. This is mainly because many Xiang-speaking immigrants from Hunan moved to Sichuan during the great wave of immigration during the Ming and Qing dynasties, so Xiang does not have such a close relationship with other southwestern varieties of Chinese, such as those spoken in Yunnan, Guangxi or Hubei.[23] For example, in both Sichuanese and Xiang the verb "to squat" is "跍" (gu1) but "蹲つくばい" (dūn) in standard Mandarin, the noun "kitchen" is "灶屋" (zao4vu2) but "厨房ちゅうぼう" (chúfáng) in standard, and the adjective "thick" is "酽" (ȵian4) but "浓" (nóng) in standard.[24] Furthermore, the Sichuanese vocabulary also contains words from Old Xiang and Middle Xiang, such as "謱謰" (sloppy), "革かわ" (old) and "崽" (son).[23]

Rank of lexical similarity between Sichuanese and other Chinese languages[2]
Rank Chinese languages Major dialect Percentage of the same vocabulary with Sichuanese
1 Southwestern Mandarin-Yunnanese Kunming 58.3%
2 Xiang Changsha 54.9%
3 Jianghuai Mandarin Yangzhou 52.7%
4 Gan Nanchang 49.4%
5 Northern Mandarin Beijing 47.8%
6 Wu Suzhou 36.4%
7 Yue Guangzhou 27.4%
8 Hakka Meixian 27.2%
9 Min Xiamen 20.2%

Status edit

Though Sichuanese is not as endangered as some other languages of China,[25] the prevalence of Sichuanese has dramatically lessened as the popularity of Mandarin Chinese has risen.[26] Government policy limits the use of Sichuanese in broadcasting, television and many public places. Furthermore, the use of Sichuanese as a teaching medium is not permitted in the curriculum, which has resulted in a reduction of fluency among young people in Sichuanese-speaking areas since the 1980s and 1990s. The Sichuanese spoken by them is greatly influenced by the national language.[27]

The decline of Sichuanese threatens to severely impact Ba-Shu culture, rooted in the Sichuanese dialect, particularly traditional Shu arts such as Sichuan opera, risking severe decline or even extinction.[28] China enacted laws in 2000 mandating the use of Mandarin. Provinces, including Sichuan, established language committees to advise, monitor, and enforce Mandarin usage.[29] The mandate inevitably caused massive decline in audience members and the performance of traditional Ba-shu folk art.

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "Change Request Documentation: 2017-025". SIL International.
  2. ^ a b c d e f 崔ちぇ荣昌 (1996). "第だい三さん章しょう：四川しせん的てき官かん话". 《四川方言与巴蜀文化》 (in Chinese). 四川しせん大学だいがく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. ISBN 7-5614-1296-7.
  3. ^ 严奇岩がん (April 2007). 《移民いみん与あずか四川しせん人じん"打だ乡谈"》. 成都せいと大学だいがく学がく报（社しゃ科か版ばん）.
  4. ^ 田た畅（2009-07-29），《在ざい四川灾区支教的300多た个日夜よる》，鞍山あんざん日び报
  5. ^ 李り彬あきら、涂鸣华 (2007). 《百ひゃく年ねん中国ちゅうごく新しん闻人（上うえ册さつ）》. 福建ふっけん人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. p. 563. ISBN 978-7-211-05482-4.
  6. ^ 吴丹, 梁りょう晓明 (Nov 23, 2005). 四川しせん交通こうつう："窗まど口こう"飞来普通ふつう话. 中国ちゅうごく交通こうつう报.
  7. ^ 张国盛もり, 余よ勇いさむ (Jun 1, 2009). 大学生だいがくせい村むら官かん恶补四川しせん方言ほうげん 现在能のう用よう流りゅう利とぎ四川しせん话和村民そんみん交流こうりゅう. 北京ぺきん晨报.
  8. ^ 走はし进大山おおやま的てき志こころざし愿すなお者しゃ. 四川しせん青年せいねん报. Jul 18, 2009.
  9. ^ 彭金祥さち（March 2006），《四川方音在宋代以后的发展》，乐山师范学院がくいん学がく报
  10. ^ 翟时雨う (2003). 中篇ちゅうへん第だい四よん节：四川しせん话的分ぶん区く. 《汉语方言ほうげん学がく》. 西南せいなん师范大学だいがく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. ISBN 7-5621-2942-8.
  11. ^ 蓝勇 (1997). 第だい十じゅう三さん章しょう：历史时期西南せいなん综合文化ぶんか区く的てき划分. 《西南せいなん历史文化ぶんか地理ちり》. 西南せいなん师范大学だいがく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. ISBN 7-5621-1603-2.
  12. ^ a b c d Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01468-X.
  13. ^ a b c d 甄尚灵等（March 1960），《四川しせん方言ほうげん音おん系けい》，四川しせん大学だいがく学がく报（社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん）
  14. ^ 易えき杰（2010），《川西かわにし大だい邑等七县市方言音系调查研究》，四川しせん师范大学だいがく
  15. ^ Li, Rong. Chengdu Dialect Dictionary. 1998
  16. ^ a b c d There's a trend in Chengdu dialect that [æ] will replace [an]
  17. ^ 余よ江こう（May 2004），《四川官话雅棉小片入声归阴平研究》，汕头大学だいがく (in Chinese)
  18. ^ 杨升初はつ（1985年ねんS2期き），《剑阁摇铃话音系けい记略》，湘潭大学だいがく社会しゃかい科学かがく学がく报. (in Chinese)
  19. ^ 王おう庆（April 2010），《四川しせん方言ほうげん中ちゅう没ぼつ、术、物的ぶってき演えんじ变》，西にし华大学がく学がく报（哲学てつがく社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん） (in Chinese)
  20. ^ 甄尚灵（January 1958），《成都せいと语音的てき初步しょほ研究けんきゅう》，四川しせん大学だいがく学がく报（哲学てつがく社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん）
  21. ^ 杨文全ぜん、鲁科颖(May 2005)，《当代とうだい成都せいと方言ほうげん新しん词汇例れい释——兼けん论其造づくり词心理しんり与あずか民みん间文化ぶんか意い蕴》，西にし华师范大学がく学がく报(哲学てつがく社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん)(in Chinese)
  22. ^ 沈荭(February 2008)，《重じゅう庆言子こ儿的文化ぶんか透とおる视》，重じゅう庆大学がく学がく报(社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん)(in Chinese)
  23. ^ a b 罗昕如 (2006). 第だい九きゅう章しょう第だい三さん节：从词汇看湘语与西南せいなん官かん话的关系. 《湘方言ほうげん词汇研究けんきゅう》 (in Chinese). Hunan Normal University Press. ISBN 978-7-81081-616-8.
  24. ^ 崔ちぇ荣昌 (1996). 《四川境内的湘方言》 (in Chinese). 中ちゅう华书局きょく（台湾たいわん）. ISBN 978-957-671-397-2.
  25. ^ "四よん川がわ经验：剽悍ひょうかん方言ほうげん无需要よう保ほ卫" (in Chinese). 新しん浪なみ网新民みん周しゅう刊かん专题. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
  26. ^ 夏なつ中易なかやす（April 2002），《近きん四十年成都话语音变动现象考论》，成都せいと大学だいがく学がく报（社しゃ科か版ばん） (in Chinese)
  27. ^ 周しゅう及徐（April 2001），《20世せい纪成都と话音变研究けんきゅう》，四川师范大学学报（社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん）(in Chinese)
  28. ^ Min, Chen (2022-04-13). "川がわ剧传承保ほ护何去さ何なに从？". Sohu.
  29. ^ Ni, Vincent (January 16, 2022). "Chinese dialects in decline as government enforces Mandarin". The Guardian. Retrieved March 20, 2024.

External links edit

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