Toghon Temür

Toghon Temür (Mongolian: Тогоонтөмөр; Mongolian script: ᠲᠤᠭᠤᠨᠲᠡᠮᠤᠷ; Chinese: 妥懽貼睦むつみ爾なんじ; pinyin: Tuǒhuāntiēmù'ěr; 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Huizong of Yuan (Chinese: 元げん惠めぐみ宗むね) bestowed by the Northern Yuan dynasty and by his posthumous name as the Emperor Shun of Yuan (Chinese: 元もと順じゅん帝みかど) bestowed by the Ming dynasty, was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and later the first emperor of the Northern Yuan dynasty. Apart from Emperor of China, he is also considered the last Khagan of the Mongol Empire. He was a son of Kusala (Emperor Mingzong).

Emperor Shun of Yuan 元もと順じゅん帝みかど Ukhaghatu Khan 烏がらす哈噶圖ず汗あせ ᠤᠬᠠᠭᠠᠲᠤ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ
15th Khan of the Mongol Empire (Nominal due to the empire's division) Emperor of China (11th Emperor of the Yuan dynasty)
Emperor Huizong in a Chinese painting
Emperor of the Yuan dynasty
Reign	19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368
Coronation	19 July 1333
Predecessor	Rinchinbal Khan
Successor	Himself as Emperor of the Northern Yuan dynasty
Emperor of the Northern Yuan dynasty
Reign	1368 – 23 May 1370
Predecessor	Himself as Emperor of the Yuan dynasty
Successor	Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara
Emperor of China
Reign	1333–1368
Predecessor	Rinchinbal Khan
Successor	Hongwu Emperor (Ming dynasty)
Born	(1320-05-25)25 May 1320
Died	23 May 1370(1370-05-23) (aged 49) Yingchang, Northern Yuan dynasty
Spouses	Empress Danashiri of Kipchak ​ ​ (m. 1333; executed 1335)​ Empress Bayan Khutugh of Khongirad clan ​ ​ (m. 1337⁠–⁠1365)​ Empress Ki of Haengju Gi clan ​ ​ (m. 1365⁠–⁠1370)​
Names Mongolian: ᠲᠤᠭᠤᠨᠲᠡᠮᠤᠷ Chinese: 妥懽帖じょう睦むつみ爾なんじ Toghon Temür Full name Given name: Toghon Temür Era dates Zhishun (至いたり順じゅん; Zhìshùn): 1333 Yuantong (元げん統みつる; Yuántǒng): 1333–1335 (Later) Zhiyuan (至いたり元もと; Zhìyuán): 1335–1340 Zhizheng (至いたり正ただし; Zhìzhèng): 1341–1370 Regnal name Ukhaghatu Khan (ᠤᠬᠠᠭᠠᠲᠤ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ; 烏がらす哈噶圖ず汗あせ) Posthumous name Emperor Shun (順じゅん皇帝こうてい) Temple name Huizong (惠めぐみ宗むね)
House	Borjigin
Dynasty	Yuan (1333–1368) Northern Yuan (1368–1370)
Father	Khutughtu Khan Kusala
Mother	Mailaiti of the Karluks
Religion	Tibetan Buddhism

During the last years of his reign, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Red Turban Rebellion, which established the Ming dynasty, although the Yuan court under his rule remained in control of northern China and the Mongolian Plateau. The remnant Yuan regime is known as the Northern Yuan in historiography.

Emperor Huizong was a Buddhist student of the Karmapas (heads of the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism) and is considered a previous incarnation of the Tai Situpas. He also notably invited the Jonang savant Dölpopa Shérab Gyeltsen to teach him, but was rebuffed.

Before succession

Toghon Temür was born to Kuśala, known as Khutughtu Khan or Emperor Mingzong, when he was in exile in Central Asia. Toghon Temür's mother was Mailaiti, descendant of Arslan Khan, the chief of the Karluks, a prominent nomadic Turkic tribal confederacy in Central Asia. According to a folk legend, the former Chinese Southern Song Emperor Gong of Song, Zhao Xian, had an affair with Yuan Empress Mailaiti. Zhao Xian allegedly fathered Yuan Toghon Temür with Mailaiti. The Mongols circulated a similar story about the Yongle Emperor.

Following the civil war known as the War of the Two Capitals that broke out after the death of Yesün Temür (Emperor Taiding) in 1328, Toghon Temür attended to his father and entered Shangdu from Mongolia. However, after Kuśala died and his younger brother was restored to the throne as Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür (Emperor Wenzong), he was kept from the court and was banished to Goryeo (modern Korea) and later to Guangxi in South China. While he was in exile, his stepmother Babusha was executed.

When Emperor Wenzong died in 1332, his widow, Empress Dowager Budashiri respected his will to make the son of Kuśala succeed to the throne instead of Wenzong's own son, El Tegüs. However, it was not Toghon Temür but his younger half-brother Rinchinbal, who was enthroned as Rinchinbal Khan (Emperor Ningzong). However, he died only two months into his reign. The de facto ruler, El Temür, attempted to install El Tegüs as emperor but was stopped by Empress Budashiri. As a result, Toghon Temür was summoned back from Guangxi. El Temür feared that Toghon Temür, who was too mature to be a puppet, would take up arms against him since he was suspected of the assassination of Toghon Temür's father, Emperor Mingzong. The enthronement was postponed for six months until El Temür died in 1333.

In 1333, Toghon Temür first met Lady Gi, a Korean concubine, with whom he fell deeply in love. Lady Gi had been sent to China sometime in the late 1320s as "human tribute" as the kings of Goryeo were required to send a certain number of beautiful teenage girls to Yuan to serve as concubines after the Mongol invasions.

Reign

Early reign

The new emperor appointed his cousin El Tegüs crown prince as he was ward of El Tegüs' mother Empress Dowager Budashiri, but he was controlled by warlords even after El Temür's death. Among them, Bayan became as powerful as El Temür had been. He served as minister of the Secretariat and crushed a rebellion by El Temür's son Tang Ki-se. During his despotic rule, he made several purges and also suspended the imperial examination system. When Toghon Temür tried to promote Lady Ki to secondary wife, which was contrary to the standard practice of only taking secondary wives from Mongol clans, it created such opposition at court to this unheard of promotion for a Korean woman that he was forced to back down. In 1339, when Lady Ki gave birth to a son, whom Toghon Temür decided would be his successor, he was finally able to have Lady Ki named his secondary wife in 1340.

As Toghon Temür matured, he came to disfavor Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan in a coup. He also removed El Tegüs and Empress Budashiri from court. With the help of Toqto'a, he also managed to purge officials that had dominated the administration.

Middle reign

With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. The young leader was quick to distinguish his regime as something wholly different from Bayan's. A new Chinese era name, Zhizheng (Chinese: 至いたり正ただし), was decreed to show this. Bayan's purges were called off. Many of the great Chinese literati came back to the capital from voluntary retirement or from administrative exile and the imperial examination system was restored.

Toqto'a also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao, Jin and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345.

Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür in June 1344, which marked the end of his first administration. The several short-lived administrations that followed from 1344 and 1349 would develop an agenda very different from Toqto'a's. In 1347, the emperor forced Toqto'a into Gansu with assistance from former officers of Kuśala and Yesün Temür.

In 1349, Toghon Temür recalled Toqto'a, which began Toqto'a's second and very different administration.

Late reign

Rebels and warlords in 1363 during the late reign of Toghon Temur.

Since the late 1340s, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters, droughts, floods, and ensuing famines. The lack of effective government policy led to a loss of support from the people. Illicit salt dealers who were disaffected by the government's salt monopoly raised a rebellion in 1348, triggering many revolts around the empire. Among them was the Red Turban Rebellion, which started in 1351 and grew into a nationwide turmoil.

In 1354, when Toqto'a led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in the restoration of Toghon Temür's power but also a rapid weakening of the central government. Thus he had no choice but to rely on the forces of local warlords.

Toghon Temür gradually lost interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. His son Biligtü Khan, who became Crown Prince in 1353, attempted to seize power and came into conflict with Toghon Temür's aides, who dominated politics instead of the khan. During this time power was increasingly exercised by Lady Ki. Chief Empress Lady Ki and his minister persuaded Biligtü Khan to overthrow the latter. Toghon Temür was unable to conciliate the dispute but executed the minister. In 1364 the Shanxi-based warlord Bolad Temür occupied Khanbaliq and expelled the Crown Prince from the winter base. In alliance with the Henan-based warlord Köke Temür, Biligtü Khan defeated Bolad Temür in the next year. This internal struggle resulted in further weakening of the political and military power of the central government. In 1365, Toghon Temür finally promoted his much beloved Lady Ki to First Empress and announced that his son by her would be the first in the line of succession.

During the Yuan dynasty, one of Confucius' descendants, who was one of the Duke Yansheng Kong Huan's 孔あな浣 sons, named Kong Shao 孔あな紹, moved from China to Goryeo era Korea and established a branch of the family there called the Gong clan of Qufu after marrying a Korean woman (Jo Jin-gyeong's 曹晉慶けい daughter) during Toghon Temür's rule. (Also see 曲きょく阜孔氏し (朝あさ鲜半岛) and 곡부 공씨)

Relations with other nations

Avignon Papacy

Monument in honor of the rebuilding of the Temple of Yan Hui in Qufu in Year 9 of the Zhizheng era (1349).

Pope John XXII and Pope Benedict XII successfully extended a network of Catholic churches throughout the Mongol Empire from Crimea to China between 1317 and 1343. The archbishop of Khanbaliq, John of Montecorvino, died in 1328. With the backing of the Toghon Temür, the Alans wrote to Pope Benedict XII in 1336 asking for a new metropolitan. In 1338, the pope sent back the embassy headed by Giovanni de' Marignolli, who stayed at Beijing three or four years. They brought gifts for Toghon Temür that included fine European horses.

Japan

When the Koreans captured a Japanese fishing ship they thought was spying, the Goryeo court sent it to their overlord, the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür, who then sent the fishermen back to Japan. In reply, the Ashikaga shogunate sent an embassy led by a monk to express its gratitude.

Retreat to the north

A statue of Toghon Temür in Mongol Castle.

After absorbing the Chen Han dynasty, conquering Southern China, and establishing the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang – crowned as the Hongwu Emperor – conducted military expeditions to North China and defeated the Yuan army in 1368. When Köke Temür lost battles against the Ming general Xu Da and Ming troops approached Hebei, Toghon Temür gave up Khanbaliq and fled to his summer base, Shangdu.

In 1369 when Shangdu also fell under the Ming's occupation, Toghon Temür fled northward to Yingchang, which was located in present-day Inner Mongolia. He died there in 1370; his son succeeded him as Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara and retreated to Karakorum in the same year. The Yuan remnants ruled northern China and the Mongolian Plateau while they continued to claim the title of Emperor of China, from which point they are referred to as the Northern Yuan dynasty. He was the longest-lived emperor of Yuan China after Kublai Khan.

At the time of his death, the Northern Yuan maintained its influence, stretching the domination from the Sea of Japan to the Altai Mountains. There were also pro-Yuan, anti-Ming forces in Yunnan and Guizhou. Even though its control over China proper had not been stable yet, the Ming considered that the Yuan lost the Mandate of Heaven when it abandoned Khanbaliq, and that the Yuan was overthrown in 1368. The Ming did not treat Toghon Temür after 1368 and his successor Ayushiridara as legitimate emperors.

The Ming gave Toghon Temür the posthumous name Emperor Shun (順じゅん皇帝こうてい), which implied that he followed the Mandate of Heaven ceding his empire to the Ming. But the Northern Yuan dynasty gave him their own posthumous name Emperor Xuanren Puxiao (宣仁のぶひと普ひろし孝こう皇帝こうてい) and temple name Huizong (惠めぐみ宗むね).

Even after Toghon Temür, there was still Yuan resistance to the Ming in the south. In southwestern China, Basalawarmi, the self-styled "Prince of Liang", established a Yuan resistance movement in Yunnan and Guizhou that was not put down until 1381.

Legacy

The David Vases date to the Zhizheng era of Toghon Temür (1351). British Museum.

Mongolian chronicles such as the Erdeniin Tobchi include a poem known as the Lament of Toghon Temür. It deals with his grieving after the loss of Khanbaliq (Beijing).

Family

Consorts and their respective issue(s):

• First Empress Consort: Empress Danashiri (答こたえ纳失里さと皇后こうごう) (1320 – 1335), of the Kipchak tribe (钦察部ぶ人じん), daughter of El Temür
  • Prince Maha (摩ま訶王) (12 May 1334 – 23 November 1334)
• Second Empress Consort: Empress Bayan Khutugh (伯はく颜忽都と皇后こうごう) (1324 – 1365), of the Hongjila clan (弘吉ひろきち剌氏) from Onggirat, daughter of Bolod Temür
  • Prince Zhenjin (真金まがね王おう)
  • Prince Xueshan (雪ゆき山王さんのう)
• Third Empress Consort: Empress Gi (奇き皇后こうごう) (1315 – 1369) of the Korean Haengju Gi clan (幸さいわい州しゅう 奇き氏し)
  • Emperor Zhaozong of Northern Yuan (北きた元昭もとあき宗むね) (23 January 1340 – 28 April/26 May 1378)
  • Miscarriage at 4 months in 1347
• Fourth Empress Consort: Empress Munashiri (木き納おさめ失しつ裏うら) (1307 – 1372) from Onggirat
• Pure Consort, of the Chinese Long clan (淑よし妃ひ 龍りゅう氏し), personal name Ruijiao (瑞みず嬌)
• Pure Consort, of the Cheng clan (淑よし妃ひ 程ほど氏し) (1333 – 1368), personal name Yining (一いち寧やすし)
• Consort, of the Korean Gyoha No clan (妃ひ交河盧の氏し)
• Pure Consort, of the Ge clan (淑よし妃ひ 戈ほこ氏し), personal name Xiaoge (小しょう娥)
• Concubine Li (麗うらら嬪), of the Zhang clan (張ちょう氏し), personal name Ayuan/Axuan (阿おもね元もと/阿おもね玄げん)
• Talented Lady (才人さいじん), of the Ning clan (凝しこり氏し), personal name Xiang'er (香こう兒じ)
• Unknown
  • Emperor Tianyuan of Northern Yuan (兀思哈勒汗あせ, b. 1342)

In popular culture

• Portrayed by Lee Suk-koo in the 2005–2006 MBC TV series Shin Don.
• Portrayed by Ji Chang-wook in the 2013-2014 MBC TV series Empress Ki.

See also

• List of Yuan emperors
• List of Mongol rulers
• List of Chinese monarchs
• List of Northern Yuan khans

Sources

• Moule, Arthur C. (1957). The Rulers of China, 221 BC-AD 1949. London: Routledge. OCLC 223359908.