Themeda triandra: Difference between revisions
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|genus = Themeda |
|genus = Themeda |
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|species = triandra |
|species = triandra |
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|authority = [[Forssk.]]<ref name=APC>{{cite web|title=Themeda triandra|url= https://biodiversity.org.au/nsl/services/apc-format/display/55809|publisher=Australian Plant Census|access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> |
|authority = [[Forssk.]]<ref name=APC>{{cite web|title=''Themeda triandra''|url= https://biodiversity.org.au/nsl/services/apc-format/display/55809|publisher=Australian Plant Census|access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> |
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|synonyms_ref =<ref name="APC" /> |
|synonyms_ref =<ref name="APC" /> |
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|synonyms = |
|synonyms = |
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|''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''lagopus'' <small>(Hack.) Domin nom. alt.</small> |
|''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''lagopus'' <small>(Hack.) Domin nom. alt.</small> |
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|''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''oligotricha'' <small>Domin nom. alt.</small> |
|''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''oligotricha'' <small>Domin nom. alt.</small> |
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|''Themeda triandra'' <small>Forssk.</small> subvar. triandra |
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|''Themeda triandra'' var. ''caesia'' <small>Domin</small> |
|''Themeda triandra'' var. ''caesia'' <small>Domin</small> |
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|''Themeda triandra'' var. ''fascicularis'' <small>Domin</small> |
|''Themeda triandra'' var. ''fascicularis'' <small>Domin</small> |
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'''''Themeda triandra''''' is a |
'''''Themeda triandra''''' is a species of [[C4 carbon fixation|{{C4}}]] perennial [[tussock-forming grass]] widespread in Africa, Australia, Asia and the Pacific. In Australia it is commonly known as '''kangaroo grass'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=''Themeda triandra'' - Plant Profiles - Queensland Native Seeds|url=https://qldnativeseeds.com.au/plant-profiles/themeda-triandra|access-date=2021-03-03|website=qldnativeseeds.com.au|language=en-us}}</ref> and in [[East Africa]] and [[South Africa]] it is known as '''red grass''' and '''red oat grass''' or as '''''rooigras''''' in [[Afrikaans]]. Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named ''Themeda australis''. |
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The plant has traditional uses as food and medicine in Africa and Australia. [[Indigenous Australians]] harvested it to make bread and string for [[fishing net]]s around 30,000 years ago. It was used as [[livestock]] feed in early colonial Australia, but this use was largely replaced by introduced plants. {{as of|2021}} there is a large government-funded project under way to investigate the possibility of growing kangaroo grass commercially in Australia for use as a regular food source for humans. |
The plant has traditional uses as food and medicine in Africa and Australia. [[Indigenous Australians]] harvested it to make bread and string for [[fishing net]]s around 30,000 years ago. It was used as [[livestock]] feed in early [[colonial Australia]], but this use was largely replaced by introduced plants. {{as of|2021}} there is a large government-funded project under way to investigate the possibility of growing kangaroo grass commercially in Australia for use as a regular food source for humans. |
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[[File:Themeda triandra, blompakkie, Skeerpoort.jpg|Flowering spikelet, South Africa|thumb]] |
[[File:Themeda triandra, blompakkie, Skeerpoort.jpg|Flowering spikelet, South Africa|thumb]] |
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[[File:Red Grass (Themeda triandra) (13912868212).jpg|Dry spikelets, South Africa|thumb]] |
[[File:Red Grass (Themeda triandra) (13912868212).jpg|Dry spikelets, South Africa|thumb]] |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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''Themeda triandra'' |
''Themeda triandra'' is a grass which grows in dense tufts up to {{convert|1.5|m}} tall and {{convert|0.5|m}} wide. It flowers in summer, producing large red-brown [[spikelet]]s on branched stems.<ref name=anbg>{{cite web|author=Liles, Jennifer|title=''Themeda triandra''|url=http://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns-2004/themeda-triandra.html|publisher=Australian National Botanic Garden|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> The leaves are {{convert|10|–|30|cm}} in length and {{convert|1|-|8|mm}} wide<ref name=kew>{{cite web|url=https://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db/www/imp10323.htm|author=W.D. Clayton|author2=M. Vorontsova|author2-link=Maria Vorontsova (botanist)|author3=K.T. Harman|author4=H. Williamson|title=Themeda triandra|publisher=[[GrassBase]]|work=The Board of Trustees, [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanic Gardens]]|location=[[Kew]]|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> but can exceed {{convert|10|-|50|cm}} long and {{convert|2|-|5|mm}} wide.<ref name=anbg/> Its [[inflorescence]] is compounded, [[Fasciculation|fasciculated]], is {{convert|10|–|30|cm}} long and composed of a single [[raceme]]. It [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicels]] are oblong and are 0.5 mm long while its [[Lemma (botany)|lemma]] is {{convert|25|-|70|mm}} long and is both apical and geniculate. The column of lemma's [[Awn (botany)|awn]] is hispidulous and twisted.<ref name=kew/> |
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Its leaves are a grey-green colour in winter, turning red-brown in summer. The blooms |
Its leaves are a grey-green colour in winter, turning red-brown in summer. The blooms exude a strong perfume.<ref name=fieldhouse/> |
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==Taxonomy and naming== |
==Taxonomy and naming== |
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''Themeda triandra'' was first formally described in 1775 by [[Peter Forsskål]] who published the description in ''Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica''.<ref name=APNI>{{cite web|title=''Themeda triandra''| url=https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/458089| publisher=APNI|access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref> There are many synonyms of this species.<ref name="WCSP">{{WCSP|446468|''Themeda triandra''}}</ref> The [[Botanical name|specific epithet]] (''triandra'') is the [[Grammatical gender|feminine]] of the [[Botanical Latin]] adjective ''triandrus'', meaning "with three stamens",<ref name=Stea04>{{Cite book |first=W.T. |last=Stearn |year=2004 |title=Botanical Latin |edition=4th (p/b) |location=Portland, Oregon |isbn=978-0-7153-1643-6 |publisher=Timber Press }} p. 516.</ref> based on the Greek-derived combining forms ''tri-'', three, and ''-andrus'', male.{{sfnp|Stearn|2004|p=368}} |
''Themeda triandra'' was first formally described in 1775 by [[Peter Forsskål]] who published the description in ''Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica''.<ref name=APNI>{{cite web|title=''Themeda triandra''| url=https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/458089| publisher=APNI|access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref> There are many synonyms of this species.<ref name="WCSP">{{WCSP|446468|''Themeda triandra''}}</ref> The [[Botanical name|specific epithet]] (''triandra'') is the [[Grammatical gender|feminine]] of the [[Botanical Latin]] adjective ''triandrus'', meaning "with three stamens",<ref name=Stea04>{{Cite book |first=W.T. |last=Stearn |year=2004 |title=Botanical Latin |edition=4th (p/b) |location=Portland, Oregon |isbn=978-0-7153-1643-6 |publisher=Timber Press }} p. 516.</ref> based on the Greek-derived combining forms ''tri-'', three, and ''-andrus'', male.{{sfnp|Stearn|2004|p=368}} |
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Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named ''Themeda australis''.<ref name=fieldhouse>{{cite web | last=Fieldhouse | first=Rachel | title=Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass | website=PlantingSeeds | date=28 September 2018 | url=https://www.ps.org.au/content/articles/2018/9/28/feature-plant-friday-kangaroo-wheat-grass | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> |
Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named ''Themeda australis''.<ref name="fieldhouse">{{cite web | last=Fieldhouse | first=Rachel | title=Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass | website=PlantingSeeds | date=28 September 2018 | url=https://www.ps.org.au/content/articles/2018/9/28/feature-plant-friday-kangaroo-wheat-grass | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> |
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==Distribution and habitat== |
==Distribution and habitat== |
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''Themeda triandra'' is found across Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific. In Australia, it is found in all of the states and territories.<ref name=anbg/> It grows predominantly in grassland and open woodland communities. It is a significant species in temperate grasslands in Australia, a habitat considered to be endangered or threatened in various parts of the country.<ref name=anbg/> It does not do well under heavy grazing pressure, but benefits from occasional fire.<ref name="dpi">{{cite web |title=''Themeda triandra'' (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass |publisher=New South Wales Government Department of Primary Industries |access-date=19 January 2020}}</ref> |
''Themeda triandra'' is found across Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific. In Australia, it is found in all of the states and territories.<ref name=anbg/> It grows predominantly in grassland and open woodland communities. It is a significant species in temperate grasslands in Australia, a habitat considered to be endangered or threatened in various parts of the country.<ref name=anbg/> It does not do well under heavy grazing pressure, but benefits from occasional fire.<ref name="dpi">{{cite web |title=''Themeda triandra'' (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass |publisher=New South Wales Government Department of Primary Industries |access-date=19 January 2020}}</ref> |
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It tolerates a wide range of soils but is most common in moist microclimates such as roadsides and railway lines.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass#:~:text=Themeda%20triandra%20is%20probably%20one,to%2012.4%25%20crude%20protein). |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.dpi.nsw.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> |
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It tolerates [[sand]]y or [[clay]] soils, is drought-tolerant, and can grow in full sun to partial shade.<ref name=fieldhouse/> |
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''T. triandra'' occurs on a wide variety of soils from sandy soils to heavy clays. There seems to be little association between abundance of ''T. triandra'' and a specific soil type. It is often common in areas where moisture collects and grazing is light, such as along roadsides or railway lines. |
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== Morphology == |
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Kangaroo grass is a tufted perennial up to 1.5m tall, with tussock width up to 0.5m. The narrow leaves grow up to 0.5m long, and are green in summer changing to straw coloured in winter. The seed head is large, often red-brown and made up of clustered spikelets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass#:~:text=Themeda%20triandra%20is%20probably%20one,to%2012.4%25%20crude%20protein). |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.dpi.nsw.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> |
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==Uses== |
==Uses== |
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The young growth is palatable to [[livestock]].<ref>Burbidge, N. T. ''Australian Grasses''. Angus and Robertson Publishers. 1966.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/AG/agA/AGAP/FRG/afris/Data/165.HTM|title=Animal Feed Resources Information System |publisher=FAO.org}}</ref> It serves as a food source for several [[bird|avian]] species, including the [[long-tailed widowbird]], and is occasionally used as an ornamental plant.<ref name=anbg/> |
The young growth is palatable to [[livestock]].<ref>Burbidge, N. T. ''Australian Grasses''. Angus and Robertson Publishers. 1966.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/AG/agA/AGAP/FRG/afris/Data/165.HTM|title=Animal Feed Resources Information System |publisher=FAO.org}}</ref> It serves as a food source for several [[bird|avian]] species, including the [[long-tailed widowbird]], and is occasionally used as an ornamental plant.<ref name=anbg/> |
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Traditionally, in [[Uganda]], the hollow stems of the grass are used as a [[thatch]] in [[hut]] construction, and for creating pulp for paper.<ref name=fieldhouse/> ''T. triandra'' seed has also been used as a [[famine food]] in Africa.<ref>{{cite |
Traditionally, in [[Uganda]], the hollow stems of the grass are used as a [[thatch]] in [[hut]] construction, and for creating pulp for paper.<ref name=fieldhouse/> ''T. triandra'' seed has also been used as a [[famine food]] in Africa.<ref name="nap">{{cite web |title=Wild Grains |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/2305/chapter/17 |publisher=The National Academies of Sciences Engineering Medicine |access-date=12 June 2021}}</ref> In [[West Africa]], the root are used in the creation of a medicine used to treat [[dysmenorrhoea]] (painful periods).<ref name="ps">{{cite web |title=Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass |url=https://www.ps.org.au/content/articles/2018/9/28/feature-plant-friday-kangaroo-wheat-grass |publisher=Planting Seeds |access-date=12 June 2021}}</ref> |
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In Australia, it is sometimes used as an [[ornamental plant]] in [[rockeries]], as a substitute for a [[lawn]], and in cooking. It has also been found to be useful in treating horses for [[obesity]], [[insulin resistance]], and foot inflammation, because it is lower in [[carbohydrate]]s such as sugar, [[starch]], and [[fructans]] than introduced grasses.<ref name=fieldhouse/> |
In Australia, it is sometimes used as an [[ornamental plant]] in [[rockeries]], as a substitute for a [[lawn]], and in cooking. It has also been found to be useful in treating horses for [[obesity]], [[insulin resistance]], and foot inflammation, because it is lower in [[carbohydrate]]s such as sugar, [[starch]], and [[fructans]] than introduced grasses.<ref name=fieldhouse/> |
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Before the [[colonisation of Australia]], kangaroo grass used to be harvested by [[Aboriginal Australians]], who used the leaves and stems for making string, the basis for [[fishing net]]s, as well as for food. The grains were harvested and ground into [[flour]] and [[porridge]]; the flour was used to make a [[bush bread|traditional bread]] (later referred to as damper, although that term is mostly used for the bread made by non-Indigenous Australians), said to have a nutty flavour. Evidence has been found of this food production occurring around 30,000 years ago, with the grain considered to be a [[staple food]] and especially valuable in [[arid]] areas.<ref name=fieldhouse/> |
Before the [[colonisation of Australia]], kangaroo grass used to be harvested by [[Aboriginal Australians]], who used the leaves and stems for making string, the basis for [[fishing net]]s, as well as for food. The grains were harvested and ground into [[flour]] and [[porridge]]; the flour was used to make a [[bush bread|traditional bread]] (later referred to as damper, although that term is mostly used for the bread made by non-Indigenous Australians), said to have a nutty flavour. Evidence has been found of this food production occurring around 30,000 years ago, with the grain considered to be a [[staple food]] and especially valuable in [[arid]] areas.<ref name=fieldhouse/> |
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However, in recent years kangaroo grass has been looked upon as a weed which is sometimes eaten by livestock. {{as of|2021}}, a four-year research project<ref name=lawrence2021/> supported by the [[Australian Government]]<ref name=foodmag>{{cite web | title=Kangaroo Grass – is it the super crop for animal feed? | website=Food & Beverage Industry News|first=Mike| last=Wheeler | date=19 December 2019 | url=https://foodmag.com.au/kangaroo-grass-is-it-the-super-crop-for-animal-feed/ | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> is being undertaken by |
However, in recent years kangaroo grass has been looked upon as a weed which is sometimes eaten by livestock. {{as of|2021}}, a four-year research project<ref name=lawrence2021/> supported by the [[Australian Government]]<ref name=foodmag>{{cite web | title=Kangaroo Grass – is it the super crop for animal feed? | website=Food & Beverage Industry News|first=Mike| last=Wheeler | date=19 December 2019 | url=https://foodmag.com.au/kangaroo-grass-is-it-the-super-crop-for-animal-feed/ | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> is being undertaken by researcher Dylan Male, at [[La Trobe University]] in collaboration with the [[Dja Dja Wurrung|Dja Dja Wurrung Aboriginal Clans Corporation]] of central [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]], investigating the possibility of developing it as a [[food crop]]. It is hoped that kangaroo grass would be able to be grown on a commercial scale and become a regular food source. They have found [[Tussock (grass)|tussocks]] of the grass estimated to be over 50 years old, an possibly unique among Australian grasses. The plant has several advantages over currently farmed grains:<ref name=lawrence2021>{{cite web | last=Lawrence | first=Sarah | title=Could native crop, kangaroo grass, become a regular ingredient in bread and help farmers regenerate land? | website=ABC News|publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=8 February 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-08/kangaroo-grass-quest-as-the-next-super-crop/13132462 | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> |
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*It can survive on land depleted by farming. |
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*It is very [[drought-resistant]]. |
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*It tolerates extreme changes in temperature. |
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*It is a [[perennial grass]]. |
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*It can help to restore already [[degraded land|degraded grasslands]]. |
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*contains 40 per cent more protein than traditional grains used for making [[bread]] |
*It contains 40 per cent more protein than traditional grains used for making [[bread]]. |
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*Because of the way it grows, forming a very dense tussock with its leaves bending outwards, it protects the soil and creates its own little [[ecosystem]] – it conserves moisture, creating habitat for small animals such as native [[insect]]s and [[invertebrate]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mata |first1=Luis |last2=Andersen |first2=Alan N. |last3=Morán‐Ordóñez |first3=Alejandra |last4=Hahs |first4=Amy K. |last5=Backstrom |first5=Anna |last6=Ives |first6=Christopher D. |last7=Bickel |first7=Daniel |last8=Duncan |first8=David |last9=Palma |first9=Estibaliz |last10=Thomas |first10=Freya |last11=Cranney |first11=Kate |last12=Walker |first12=Ken |last13=Shears |first13=Ian |last14=Semeraro |first14=Linda |last15=Malipatil |first15=Mallik |last16=Moir |first16=Melinda L. |last17=Plein |first17=Michaela |last18=Porch |first18=Nick |last19=Vesk |first19=Peter A. |last20=Smith |first20=Tessa R. |last21=Lynch |first21=Yvonne |title=Indigenous plants promote insect biodiversity in urban greenspaces |journal=Ecological Applications |date=June 2021 |volume=31 |issue=4 |page=9 |doi=10.1002/eap.2309|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30148591 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> |
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However, at present the commercial viability of kangaroo grass is limited by low seed yields and poor knowledge of broadacre crop management.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Male |first=Dylan |last2=Hunt |first2=James |last3=Celestina |first3=Corinne |last4=Morgan |first4=John |last5=Gupta |first5=Dorin |date=2022-12-31 |title=Themeda triandra as a perennial seed crop in south-eastern Australia: What are the agronomic possibilities and constraints, and future research needs? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2022.2153964 |journal=Cogent Food & Agriculture |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=2153964 |doi=10.1080/23311932.2022.2153964 |issn=2331-1932|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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The project will draw heavily on the knowledge of the [[traditional owners]] of the land, and there will be ongoing communication with farmers and [[Landcare Australia]] groups.<ref name=foodmag/> |
The project will draw heavily on the knowledge of the [[traditional owners]] of the land, and there will be ongoing communication with farmers and [[Landcare Australia]] groups.<ref name=foodmag/> |
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The project follows a smaller, [[crowdfunded]] project undertaken in 2017 by writer [[Bruce Pascoe]] on his own property in [[Gipsy Point, Victoria|Gipsy Point]], eastern Victoria, managed by volunteers, to develop several [[Indigenous Australian]] food crops, including [[murnong]] (yam daisy), kangaroo grass and [[Rubus parvifolius|native raspberries]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Fitzgerald | first=Bridget | title=Project to harvest and mill kangaroo grass aims to encourage farmers to adopt native Australian crops | website=ABC News|publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=9 January 2017 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-01-09/potential-for-farmers-to-grow-native-plants/8161212 | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> |
The project follows a smaller, [[crowdfunded]] project undertaken in 2017 by writer [[Bruce Pascoe]] on his own property in [[Gipsy Point, Victoria|Gipsy Point]], eastern Victoria, managed by volunteers, to develop several [[Indigenous Australian]] food crops, including [[murnong]] (yam daisy), kangaroo grass and [[Rubus parvifolius|native raspberries]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Fitzgerald | first=Bridget | title=Project to harvest and mill kangaroo grass aims to encourage farmers to adopt native Australian crops | website=ABC News|publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=9 January 2017 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-01-09/potential-for-farmers-to-grow-native-plants/8161212 | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> |
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In 2020 Pascoe established the not-for-profit Aboriginal social enterprise Black Duck Foods in Mallacoota, Victoria. Black Duck Foods conducts research into native foods and is currently working on a roadmap for the native grains industry. They have small quantities of kangaroo and spear grass flour for sale on their website.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Black Duck Foods |url=https://www.blackduckfoods.com.au/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.blackduckfoods.com.au |language=en}}</ref> |
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The University of Sydney has undertaken research into the nutritional value of kangaroo grass, finding that it is high in protein and minerals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Institute of Agriculture, the University of Sydney |date=September 2020 |title=Native grains from paddock to plate: study of the economic, environmental and social sustainability of an ancient system in a modern context |url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/faculty-of-science/research/life-and-environmental-sciences/sia-native-grains-paddock-to-plate.pdf |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=The University of Sydney}}</ref> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{Authority control}} |
{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Andropogoneae]] |
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[[Category:Grasses of Africa]] |
[[Category:Grasses of Africa]] |
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[[Category:Grasses of Asia]] |
[[Category:Grasses of Asia]] |
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[[Category:Flora of South Australia]] |
[[Category:Flora of South Australia]] |
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[[Category:Flora of Tasmania]] |
[[Category:Flora of Tasmania]] |
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[[Category:Flora of Victoria ( |
[[Category:Flora of Victoria (state)]] |
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[[Category:Angiosperms of Western Australia]] |
[[Category:Angiosperms of Western Australia]] |
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[[Category:Forages]] |
[[Category:Forages]] |
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[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Forsskål]] |
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Forsskål]] |
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[[Category:Cereals]] |
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Latest revision as of 01:07, 6 October 2023
| Themeda triandra | |
|---|---|
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Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Clade: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Poaceae |
| Subfamily: | Panicoideae |
| Genus: | Themeda |
| Species: | T. triandra
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| Binomial name | |
| Themeda triandra | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
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List
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Themeda triandra is a species of C4 perennial tussock-forming grass widespread in Africa, Australia, Asia and the Pacific. In Australia it is commonly known as kangaroo grass[2] and in East Africa and South Africa it is known as red grass and red oat grass or as rooigras in Afrikaans. Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named Themeda australis.
The plant has traditional uses as food and medicine in Africa and Australia. Indigenous Australians harvested it to make bread and string for fishing nets around 30,000 years ago. It was used as livestock feed in early colonial Australia, but this use was largely replaced by introduced plants. As of 2021[update] there is a large government-funded project under way to investigate the possibility of growing kangaroo grass commercially in Australia for use as a regular food source for humans.
_(13912868212).jpg)
.jpg)
Description
[edit]Themeda triandra is a grass which grows in dense tufts up to 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) tall and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) wide. It flowers in summer, producing large red-brown spikelets on branched stems.[3] The leaves are 10–30 centimetres (3.9–11.8 in) in length and 1–8 millimetres (0.039–0.315 in) wide[4] but can exceed 10–50 centimetres (3.9–19.7 in) long and 2–5 millimetres (0.079–0.197 in) wide.[3] Its inflorescence is compounded, fasciculated, is 10–30 centimetres (3.9–11.8 in) long and composed of a single raceme. It pedicels are oblong and are 0.5 mm long while its lemma is 25–70 millimetres (0.98–2.76 in) long and is both apical and geniculate. The column of lemma's awn is hispidulous and twisted.[4]
Its leaves are a grey-green colour in winter, turning red-brown in summer. The blooms exude a strong perfume.[5]
Taxonomy and naming
[edit]Themeda triandra was first formally described in 1775 by Peter Forsskål who published the description in Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica.[6] There are many synonyms of this species.[7] The specific epithet (triandra) is the feminine of the Botanical Latin adjective triandrus, meaning "with three stamens",[8] based on the Greek-derived combining forms tri-, three, and -andrus, male.[9]
Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named Themeda australis.[5]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]Themeda triandra is found across Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific. In Australia, it is found in all of the states and territories.[3] It grows predominantly in grassland and open woodland communities. It is a significant species in temperate grasslands in Australia, a habitat considered to be endangered or threatened in various parts of the country.[3] It does not do well under heavy grazing pressure, but benefits from occasional fire.[10]
It tolerates a wide range of soils but is most common in moist microclimates such as roadsides and railway lines.[11]
T. triandra occurs on a wide variety of soils from sandy soils to heavy clays. There seems to be little association between abundance of T. triandra and a specific soil type. It is often common in areas where moisture collects and grazing is light, such as along roadsides or railway lines.
Morphology
[edit]Kangaroo grass is a tufted perennial up to 1.5m tall, with tussock width up to 0.5m. The narrow leaves grow up to 0.5m long, and are green in summer changing to straw coloured in winter. The seed head is large, often red-brown and made up of clustered spikelets.[12]
Uses
[edit]The young growth is palatable to livestock.[13][14] It serves as a food source for several avian species, including the long-tailed widowbird, and is occasionally used as an ornamental plant.[3]
Traditionally, in Uganda, the hollow stems of the grass are used as a thatch in hut construction, and for creating pulp for paper.[5] T. triandra seed has also been used as a famine food in Africa.[15] In West Africa, the root are used in the creation of a medicine used to treat dysmenorrhoea (painful periods).[16]
In Australia, it is sometimes used as an ornamental plant in rockeries, as a substitute for a lawn, and in cooking. It has also been found to be useful in treating horses for obesity, insulin resistance, and foot inflammation, because it is lower in carbohydrates such as sugar, starch, and fructans than introduced grasses.[5]
Before the colonisation of Australia, kangaroo grass used to be harvested by Aboriginal Australians, who used the leaves and stems for making string, the basis for fishing nets, as well as for food. The grains were harvested and ground into flour and porridge; the flour was used to make a traditional bread (later referred to as damper, although that term is mostly used for the bread made by non-Indigenous Australians), said to have a nutty flavour. Evidence has been found of this food production occurring around 30,000 years ago, with the grain considered to be a staple food and especially valuable in arid areas.[5]
However, in recent years kangaroo grass has been looked upon as a weed which is sometimes eaten by livestock. As of 2021[update], a four-year research project[17] supported by the Australian Government[18] is being undertaken by researcher Dylan Male, at La Trobe University in collaboration with the Dja Dja Wurrung Aboriginal Clans Corporation of central Victoria, investigating the possibility of developing it as a food crop. It is hoped that kangaroo grass would be able to be grown on a commercial scale and become a regular food source. They have found tussocks of the grass estimated to be over 50 years old, an possibly unique among Australian grasses. The plant has several advantages over currently farmed grains:[17]
- It can survive on land depleted by farming.
- It is very drought-resistant.
- It tolerates extreme changes in temperature.
- It is a perennial grass.
- It can help to restore already degraded grasslands.
- It contains 40 per cent more protein than traditional grains used for making bread.
- Because of the way it grows, forming a very dense tussock with its leaves bending outwards, it protects the soil and creates its own little ecosystem – it conserves moisture, creating habitat for small animals such as native insects and invertebrates.[19]
However, at present the commercial viability of kangaroo grass is limited by low seed yields and poor knowledge of broadacre crop management.[20]
The project will draw heavily on the knowledge of the traditional owners of the land, and there will be ongoing communication with farmers and Landcare Australia groups.[18]
The project follows a smaller, crowdfunded project undertaken in 2017 by writer Bruce Pascoe on his own property in Gipsy Point, eastern Victoria, managed by volunteers, to develop several Indigenous Australian food crops, including murnong (yam daisy), kangaroo grass and native raspberries.[21]
In 2020 Pascoe established the not-for-profit Aboriginal social enterprise Black Duck Foods in Mallacoota, Victoria. Black Duck Foods conducts research into native foods and is currently working on a roadmap for the native grains industry. They have small quantities of kangaroo and spear grass flour for sale on their website.[22]
The University of Sydney has undertaken research into the nutritional value of kangaroo grass, finding that it is high in protein and minerals.[23]
References
[edit]- ^ a b "Themeda triandra". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ^ "Themeda triandra - Plant Profiles - Queensland Native Seeds". qldnativeseeds.com.au. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ a b c d e Liles, Jennifer. "Themeda triandra". Australian National Botanic Garden. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
- ^ a b W.D. Clayton; M. Vorontsova; K.T. Harman; H. Williamson. "Themeda triandra". The Board of Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew: GrassBase. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
- ^ a b c d e Fieldhouse, Rachel (28 September 2018). "Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass". PlantingSeeds. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ^ "Themeda triandra". APNI. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ "Themeda triandra". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- ^ Stearn, W.T. (2004). Botanical Latin (4th (p/b) ed.). Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-7153-1643-6. p. 516.
- ^ Stearn (2004), p. 368.
- ^ "Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass)". New South Wales Government Department of Primary Industries. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ "Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass)". www.dpi.nsw.gov.au. 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
- ^ "Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass)". www.dpi.nsw.gov.au. 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
- ^ Burbidge, N. T. Australian Grasses. Angus and Robertson Publishers. 1966.
- ^ "Animal Feed Resources Information System". FAO.org.
- ^ "Wild Grains". The National Academies of Sciences Engineering Medicine. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
- ^ "Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass". Planting Seeds. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
- ^ a b Lawrence, Sarah (8 February 2021). "Could native crop, kangaroo grass, become a regular ingredient in bread and help farmers regenerate land?". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ^ a b Wheeler, Mike (19 December 2019). "Kangaroo Grass – is it the super crop for animal feed?". Food & Beverage Industry News. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ^ Mata, Luis; Andersen, Alan N.; Morán‐Ordóñez, Alejandra; Hahs, Amy K.; Backstrom, Anna; Ives, Christopher D.; Bickel, Daniel; Duncan, David; Palma, Estibaliz; Thomas, Freya; Cranney, Kate; Walker, Ken; Shears, Ian; Semeraro, Linda; Malipatil, Mallik; Moir, Melinda L.; Plein, Michaela; Porch, Nick; Vesk, Peter A.; Smith, Tessa R.; Lynch, Yvonne (June 2021). "Indigenous plants promote insect biodiversity in urban greenspaces". Ecological Applications. 31 (4): 9. doi:10.1002/eap.2309. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30148591.
- ^ Male, Dylan; Hunt, James; Celestina, Corinne; Morgan, John; Gupta, Dorin (31 December 2022). "Themeda triandra as a perennial seed crop in south-eastern Australia: What are the agronomic possibilities and constraints, and future research needs?". Cogent Food & Agriculture. 8 (1): 2153964. doi:10.1080/23311932.2022.2153964. ISSN 2331-1932.
- ^ Fitzgerald, Bridget (9 January 2017). "Project to harvest and mill kangaroo grass aims to encourage farmers to adopt native Australian crops". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ^ "Home | Black Duck Foods". www.blackduckfoods.com.au. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
- ^ Institute of Agriculture, the University of Sydney (September 2020). "Native grains from paddock to plate: study of the economic, environmental and social sustainability of an ancient system in a modern context" (PDF). The University of Sydney. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Themeda triandra.
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