Liubo
Liubo | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Literal meaning | six sticks | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Liubo (Chinese:
The game was invented no later than the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, and was popular during the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). However, after the Han dynasty it rapidly declined in popularity, possibly due to the rise in popularity of the game of weiqi (go), and it became totally forgotten.
Knowledge of the game has increased in recent years with archeological discoveries of Liubo game boards and game equipment in ancient tombs, as well as discoveries of Han dynasty picture stones and picture bricks depicting Liubo players.
History
[edit]It is not known when the game of liubo originated, although according to legend it was invented by Wu Cao (
The game of liubo is also described in the mid 3rd century BCE poem "Summons of the Soul" ("Zhao Hun"
菎蔽
象棋 ,有 六 簙些。
分 曹並進 ,遒相迫 些。
成 梟 而牟,呼 五 白 些。Then with bamboo dice and ivory pieces the game of Liu Bo is begun;
Sides are taken; they advance together; keenly they threaten each other.
Pieces are kinged and the scoring doubled. Shouts of ‘five white!’ arise.[3]
Note that the line “Pieces are kinged” translates
The game reached its greatest popularity during the Han dynasty, as is evidenced by the discovery of many examples of Liubo boards or sets of Liubo game pieces as grave goods in high status tombs dating to the Han dynasty. Pottery or wooden figurines of players with model Liubo boards have also been discovered in some Han tombs.[5][6] Engraved picture stones (
After the end of the Han dynasty the game seems to have lost its popularity, and there are no known examples of liubo funerary ware or depictions of liubo playing later than the Jin dynasty (266–420). Although the game is still occasionally referred to in some historical sources and in poetry as late as the Tang dynasty (618–907), it seems that liubo had been largely displaced by the game of Go. By the time of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) all knowledge of the game of liubo had been lost, and it is only with the archeological discoveries of recent years that the game has become better known.
There is some evidence that the game of liubo spread to beyond the confines of China. The Old Book of Tang mentions that Tibetans enjoyed playing both the game of Go and liubo,[7] but although ancient Tibetan Go boards have been discovered, no examples of Tibetan liubo boards are known.[8] The Chinese version of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra also mentions the playing of several games, including Liubo, which some have taken as evidence that Liubo was transmitted to India. However, to date no examples of Liubo boards have been found outside of China.
Equipment
[edit]Liubo boards and game equipment are often found as grave goods in tombs from the Han dynasty. Various types and sizes of Liubo board have been unearthed, made from a variety of materials, including wood, lacquered wood, pottery, stone and bronze. Some of the boards are simple square slabs of stone or wood, but others are supported by knobs at the four corners, and some are built as tables with long legs. Regardless of their size or shape, the common feature of all Liubo boards is the distinctive pattern that is carved or painted on their surface:
All excavated boards have the angular V-shaped marks at the corners and L-shaped marks at the center of the edges, as well as the central square and T-shaped protrusions, and most boards also have four marks (usually circular but sometimes a decorative pattern) between the corner mark and the central square. However, on some boards each circular mark is replaced by a straight line joining the corner mark to the corner of the inner square, and in a few cases there is no mark between the corner and the square at all.
In many tombs only the Liubo board has survived (especially if made of stone or bronze), and it can be assumed that any associated game pieces have decayed, whereas in other cases the game pieces (which are often made of ivory) have survived but the Liubo board (which is often made of wood or lacquer) has rotted away. However, in 1973 a unique, complete set of Liubo equipment in a lacquer box was discovered in a 2nd-century BCE tomb at Mawangdui (believed to be that of the son of the Marquis of Dai). This Liubo set comprises the following items (the Chinese description of the items in the inventory of grave goods that was found in the tomb are given in brackets):[9]
- 1 lacquered wooden game box (45.0 × 45.0 × 17.0 cm.) [
博一 具 ] - 1 lacquered wooden game board (45.0 × 45.0 × 1.2 cm.) [
博 局 一 ] - 12 cuboid ivory game pieces (4,2 × 2.2 × 2.3 cm.), six black and six white [
象 其十 二 ] - 20 ivory game pieces (2.9 × 1.7 × 1.0 cm.) [
象 直 食 其廿] - 30 rod-shaped ivory counting chips (16.4 cm. long) [
象 筭三 十 枚 ] - 12 ivory throwing rods (22.7 cm. long) [
象 □□□□ (last four characters obliterated)] - 1 ivory knife (22.0 cm. long) [
象 割 刀 一 ] - 1 ivory scraper (17.2 cm. long) [
象 削 一 ] - 1 eighteen-sided die with the numbers "1" through "16" and characters meaning "win" and "lose" [not listed in the inventory]
The six black and six white game pieces are the main game pieces to be moved around the board, and similar sets of cubic or cuboid game pieces made from ivory, jadeite or rock crystal have been found in several other tombs. In at least one case the game pieces are not distinguished by colour, but by having an engraving of a tiger on the pieces of one set and an engraving of a dragon on the pieces of the other set.[10] One game piece on each side is designated as a commander.[11]: 6
The twelve long rods are two sets of the six throwing sticks that the players use to determine their moves, and which the game is named after (Liubo="six sticks"). Most Han stone pictures of Liubo show the players throwing sticks onto a mat between themselves (with the Liubo board to the side of the mat), and ceramic model Liubo sets such as the one excavated in 1972 from Lingbao in Henan province show six sticks lined up neatly between the two players.[12]
Sets of thirty rod-shaped counting chips have also been found in association with Liubo sets from other tombs.[13]
However, the twenty ivory game pieces and the eighteen-sided die in the Mawangdui set are not typically associated with Liubo boards in other tombs, and it is possible that they were not used for playing Liubo, but were equipment for a different game. A similar eighteen-sided die with numbers "1" through "16", "win" and "take a drink" was found in association with two sets of twenty copper, coin-shaped tokens (one set inscribed "Number 1" through "Number 20", and the other set inscribed with three-character lines of poetry) in a Han tomb at Mancheng County in Hebei. No Liubo board or Liubo game pieces were found in the tomb, and because of the inscription "take a drink" (
Rules
[edit]The exact rules of the game of Liubo are not known, and some of the surviving descriptions of the game are conflicting, which suggests that the game may have been played according to different rules at different times or in different places. The most complete description of the rules of Liubo occurs in a quotation from the lost Book of Ancient Bo (
Method of play: Two people sit facing each other over a board, and the board is divided into twelve paths, with two ends, and an area called the "water" in the middle. Twelve game pieces are used, which according to the ancient rules are six white and six black. There are also two "fish" pieces, which are placed in the water. The throwing of the dice is done with a jade. The two players take turns to throw the dice and move their pieces. When a piece has been moved to a certain place it is stood up on end, and called an "owl (
梟 or驍) ". Thereupon it can enter the water and eat a fish, which is also called "pulling a fish". Every time a player pulls a fish he gets two tokens, and if he pulls two fish in a row he gets three tokens [for the second fish]. If a player has already pulled two fish but does not win it is called double-pulling a pair of fish. When one player wins six tokens the game is won.
Another, somewhat later source, The Family Instructions of Master Yan by Yan Zhitui (531–591) states that there were two variants of Liubo, "Greater Bo" (
The ancient Greater Bo used six sticks, whereas Lesser Bo used two dice. Nowadays there is no-one who knows how to play, but in those days when it was played it used one die and twelve game pieces. It had very little skill, and was not worth playing.
Most game historians think that Liubo was a race game, and that players moved their six games pieces around the marks on the board. However, others consider Liubo to have been a battle game played with dice or throwing sticks.
There have been several attempts to reconstruct the rules of the game, most notably by Lien-sheng Yang, who discusses the game as it was possibly played on TLV mirrors.[16] Yang theorizes that a player's piece would start on an L-shaped mark and try to move to a V-shaped corner mark depending on the throw of the sticks. Certain throws would allow a player's piece to move into the center and ‘kill’ the opponent's piece if it was already there. Once in the center, a piece could begin to block the enemy's pieces from taking a square. For each block one would gain two points. One could also attempt to recover one's pieces after they are blocked, and would gain three points for doing this. If one failed to win after having blocked two men, then the opponent would gain six points and win the game. The first player to six points would win the game. Jean-Louis Cazaux has reconstructed similar rules for playing Liubo.[17] An implementation of these reconstructed rules as a playable computer game has also been attempted.[18]
In 2019, more than 1000 bamboo slips containing the rules for Liubo have been discovered in the tomb of the Marquis of Haihun.[19][20]
Chupu
[edit]A variant of Liubo in which dice were used to make the moves was called Chupu (
Relationship to other games
[edit]Some scholars associate Liubo to other board games, and in particular some Chinese scholars believe that Xiangqi (Chinese chess) was based on Liubo.[23] Some historians believe that Xiangqi is not related to Persian chess, but was based on Liubo, whereas others have suggested that Liubo was transmitted from China to India during the Eastern Jin (317–420), where it developed into Chaturanga, which was the ancestor to both Persian chess and Chinese chess.[24] Although many Persian game historians reject the claim that Xiangqi or other chess variants derive from Liubo,[25] Jean-Louis Cazaux argues that Liubo could have been transformed from a race game to a battle game, and it could then have become Chinese chess.[26]
Liubo patterns on other objects
[edit]Mirrors
[edit]The pattern found on the surface of Liubo boards is also found on the most common type of Han dynasty bronze mirror, known from their distinctive markings as TLV mirrors. There is some debate over whether the Liubo pattern on these mirrors was simply decorative, or whether it had a ritual significance, or whether perhaps the mirrors doubled as portable Liubo game boards. Zhou Zheng has pointed out that one TLV mirror dating to the reign of Wang Mang (9–23) has an inscription that includes the words "Carved with a Liubo board pattern to dispel misfortune" (
Coins
[edit]The Liubo pattern is also sometimes found on the reverse of Wu Zhu coins. Such coins were not used as currency but were probably lucky charms.[28]
Sundials
[edit]In 1897 a Han dynasty stone sundial was discovered in Inner Mongolia which had been overcarved with a Liubo board pattern.[29] The only other complete Han dynasty sundial, in the collection of the Royal Ontario Museum, also has a Liubo pattern carved on it. It may be that the sundials were repurposed as Liubo boards by carving the Liubo pattern over the original sundial markings, or it may be that the Liubo markings were added for some unknown ritual purpose.
Divination boards
[edit]In 1993, a wooden board with turtle divination diagrams and prognostications on one side and a Liubo diagram and forty-five prognostications on five topics on the other side was excavated from a late Western Han tomb at Yinwan in Donghai County, Jiangsu.[30] The Liubo diagram is too small to have been used for playing Liubo, and is covered with the sixty terms of the sexagenary cycle which are written all along the lines of the Liubo diagram, in a similar way that the turtle diagram on the other side of the board is filled with the sixty terms. The prognostications under the Liubo diagram are headed with one of nine terms that correspond to the words of an enigmatic, mnemonic rhyme about Liubo written by Xu Bochang (
Li Xueqin has suggested that the board was used for divination by matching the day to be divined to the corresponding sexagenary term on the Liubo diagram, and then reading off the corresponding prognostication according to the position of the sexagenary term on the Liubo diagram.[32] However, Lillian Tseng points out that the divination could also be done the other way round, by looking for the desired prognostication (for example an auspicious marriage day), and then all the days on the Liubo board that were written on the position corresponding to the term heading the prognostication would match the desired prognostication.
It has been theorized that the placement of the sixty sexagenary terms on the points of the Liubo divination diagram indicate the possible positions for placing pieces when playing Liubo, and that the sequence of the terms across the divination diagram reflects the path to be followed around the board when playing the game (starting at the north-east corner and ending at the north side of the central square).[33]
Players
[edit]People who have played Liubo include:
- King Mu of Zhou (reigned 977–922 BCE), who according to the apocryphal Travels of King Mu once played a game of Liubo with a hermit that lasted three days.[34]
- Duke Min of Song (
宋 湣公), who in 682 BCE got into an argument with Nangong Wan南宮 萬 whilst playing Liubo with him, and was killed by Nangong Wan when he hit the duke with the Liubo board.[35] - King Anxi of Wei
魏 安 釐王 (reigned 277–243 BCE) and his half-brother Lord Xinling of Wei信 陵 君 (died 243 BCE). Once when the two of them were playing Liubo a message came that the beacons on the northern border had been lit; King Anxi wanted to stop the game and discuss the situation with his ministers, but his brother told him not to worry as it was only the king of Zhao on a hunting trip, and so they continued playing. The king was worried and could not concentrate on the game, but after the game was over news came that it was indeed the king of Zhao out hunting.[36] - Jing Ke (died 227 BCE), the failed assassin of Qin Shi Huang, once had an argument with Lu Goujian (魯句踐) over a game of Liubo, and had to flee for his life.[37]
- Emperor Jing of Han (reigned 156–141 BCE), who when he was crown prince became angry during a game of Liubo with the Prince of Wu, and threw the Liubo board at the prince, killing him (cf. Rebellion of the Seven States).[38]
- Liang Ji (died 159), who according to his biography was fond of playing Liubo.
- Li Guangyan (761–826), a Uyghur general who was presented with a girl who was trained in the arts of "song, dance, music and Liubo".[39]
- Liu Min (895–954), a Shatuo Turk and founder of the Northern Han kingdom, liked to play Liubo and gambling games when he was young.[40]
Confucius did not approve of Liubo. In the Analects he grudgingly allows that playing Liubo and Go is better than being idle,[41] and according to the Kongzi Jiayu (Family Sayings of Confucius) he stated that he would not play the game as it promoted bad habits.[42]
See also
[edit]- TLV mirror – Type of bronze mirror that was popular during the Han dynasty in China
- Mandala
References
[edit]- ^ Xu, Shen.
說 文 解 字 /06 (Shuowen Jiezi vol. 7) (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.簙:
局 戲 也。六 箸 十 二 棊也。从竹博 聲 。古 者 烏 胄作簙。 - ^ Sima, Qian.
史記 /卷 069 [Records of the Grand Historian vol.69] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.臨菑甚富而實,其民
無 不吹 竽鼓瑟,彈琴 擊 築 ,鬥雞走狗 ,六 博 蹋鞠者 。 - ^ Hawkes, David (1985). The Songs of the South: An Anthology of Ancient Chinese Poems by Qu Yuan and Other Poets. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. p. 229. ISBN 0-14-044375-4.
- ^ Rawson, Jessica (1996). Mysteries of Ancient China. London: British Museum Press. pp. 159–161. ISBN 0-7141-1472-3.
- ^
甘 肃省博物 馆 (Gansu Provincial Museum).武威 磨 咀子三座汉墓发掘简报 [Brief report of the excavation of three Han tombs at Mozuizi in Wuwei].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1972 (12): 9–16. - ^
河南 省 博物 馆 (Henan Provincial Museum). 灵宝张湾汉墓 [The Han tomb at Zhangwan in Lingbao].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1975 (11): 80–81. - ^ Xu, Liu.
舊 唐 書 /卷 196上 [Old Book of Tang vol.196A] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.圍 棋陸博 ,吹蠡鳴鼓 為 戲 ,弓 劍 不離 身 。 - ^ Hazod, Guntram (2002). "The Royal Residence Pho brang byams pa mi 'gyur gling and the Story of Srong btsan sgam po's Birth in Rgya ma". Tibet, past and Present: Tibetan Studies I. Proceedings of the Ninth Seminar of the IATS, 2000. Leiden: Brill. pp. 27–48. ISBN 9004127755.
- ^
熊 传新 (Xiong Chuanxin). 谈马王 堆 3号 西 汉墓出土 的 陆博 [Discussion of the Liubo set unearthed from the No. 3 Western Han tomb at Mawangdui].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1979 (4): 35–39. - ^
大 葆台汉墓发掘组 (Dabaotai Han Tomb Excavation Group) (1989).北京大 葆台汉墓 [The Han tomb at Dabaotai in Beijing] (in Chinese). Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe. p. 53. ISBN 7-5010-0238-X. - ^ Guo, Li; Eyman, Douglas; Sun, Hongmei (2024). "Introduction". In Guo, Li; Eyman, Douglas; Sun, Hongmei (eds.). Games & Play in Chinese & Sinophone Cultures. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295752402.
- ^ "The green-glazed liubo-playing pottery figurines". Cultural China. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
- ^ 莱西县
文化 馆 (Laixi County Culture Hall).山東 萊西縣 岱墅西 漢 木 槨墓 [The Western Han timber-chambered tomb at Daishu in Laixi county in Shandong].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1980 (12): 15. - ^
中国 社会 科学 院 考古 研究所 (Archeology Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) (1980). 满城汉墓发掘报告 [Excavation report for the Han tomb at Mancheng] (in Chinese). Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe. pp. 271–274. - ^ Yan, Zhitui.
顏 氏家 訓 /卷 第 7 [The Family Instructions of Master Yan vol. 7] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.古 为大博 则六箸 ,小 博 则二 茕,今 无晓者 。比 世 所行 ,一 茕十 二 棋,数 术浅短 ,不足 可 翫。 - ^ Yang, Lien-sheng (June 1952). "An Additional Note on the Ancient Game Liu-po". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 15 (1): 124–139. doi:10.2307/2718275. JSTOR 2718275.
- ^ Cazaux, Jean-Louis (2008-01-20). "Reconstructed rules of Liubo". Retrieved 2009-06-26.
- ^ "The Ancient Game of Liubo". 2011-04-11. Retrieved 2011-04-19.
- ^ "Lost Game's Rules Found in Marquis of Haihun's Tomb". 2019-03-13. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
- ^ "China discovers bamboo slips recording rules of ancient board game". 2019-03-13. Archived from the original on March 13, 2019. Retrieved 2019-03-15.
- ^
色 子 的 五木 、投 瓊和彩 戰 等 Archived 2011-07-15 at the Wayback Machine - ^ "[전통놀이] 저포놀이" [[Traditional Games] Play Jeopo]. 20 May 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ "Give up Persian Chess – play Chinese Chess instead! (interview between Dr. René Gralla and Prof. David H. Li)". ChessBase. 2005-06-15. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
Professor Li, it seems to be that historians from China endorse your thesis – that the origins of chess can be found in China. In summary: XiangQi originates from the mysterious game Liubo; Liubo turned into GeWu, the latter has turned into Proto-XiangQi. Peter Banaschak analysed the sources that the representatives of the Chinese school cite, and he thinks that all those quotations from the past can be references to some game, but not necessarily to the game of chess or XiangQi.
- ^ "Liubo – the Ancestor of Board Games". Cultural China. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
According to the research of modern board game historians, liubo is actually the ancestor of all battle board games of the world today, such as Chinese chess, chess etc. These games all evolve from liubo.
- ^ Banaschak, Peter. "A story well told is not necessarily true – being a critical assessment of David H. Li's "The Genealogy of Chess"". Retrieved 2009-06-26.
- ^ Cazaux, Jean-Louis (2001). "Is Chess a Hybrid Game ?" (PDF). pp. 5–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 16, 2007. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
My idea, very speculative I must confess, is that someone could have turned this race game into a confrontation game opposing in each side the 6 stones as Soldiers, with a notion of promotion during the course of the game, and 10 fishes as Officers. ... Also, to divide the two sides on a battlefield, the best was probably to convert the central water into a river in the middle.
- ^
周 铮 (Zhou Zheng). "规矩镜"应改称 "博 局 镜" ["Geometric mirrors" should be called "Liubo pattern mirrors"].考古 (Archeology) (in Chinese). 1987 (12): 1116–1118. - ^ "#54832: China, charm – Wu Zhu coin". Zeno Oriental Coins Database. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
- ^ 孙机 (Sun Ji).
托 克 托 日 晷 [The Togtoh sundial].中国 历史博物 馆馆刊 (Journal of the Museum of Chinese History) (in Chinese). 1971 (3): 74–81. - ^
尹 湾 汉墓简牍初 探 [Preliminary investigation about the wooden slips from the Han tomb at Yinwan].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1996 (10): 68–71. - ^ 曾蓝莹 (Lillian Tseng).
尹 湾 汉墓"博 局 占 "木 牍试解 [Attempt to explain the "Liubo divination" wooden slip from the Han tomb at Yinwan].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1994 (8): 62–65. - ^ Li Xueqin. "
博 局 占 "与 规矩纹 ["Liubo board divination" and geometric patterns].文物 (Cultural Relics) (in Chinese). 1997 (1): 49–51. - ^ Cazaux, Jean-Louis. "Liubo". Retrieved 2009-06-26.
- ^
穆 天子 傳 /卷 五 [Account of King Mu of Zhou vol.5] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.是 日 也,天子 北 入 于邴,与井 公博 ,三 日 而决。 - ^ Sima, Qian.
史記 /卷 038 [Records of the Grand Historian vol.38] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.十 一 年 秋 ,湣公與 南宮 萬 獵 ,因 博 爭 行 ,湣公怒 ,辱 之 ,曰:「始 吾 敬 若 ;今 若 ,魯虜也。」萬 有力 ,病 此言,遂 以局殺 湣公于蒙澤 。 - ^ Sima, Qian.
史記 /卷 077 [Records of the Grand Historian vol.77] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.公子 與 魏 王 博 ,而北境 傳 舉烽,言 「趙 寇至,且入界 」。魏 王 釋 博 ,欲 召大臣 謀 。公子 止 王 曰:「趙 王 田 獵 耳 ,非 為 寇也。」複 博 如故。王 恐 ,心 不在 博 。 - ^ Sima, Qian.
史記 /卷 86 [Records of the Grand Historian vol.86] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.荊軻
遊 於邯鄲 ,魯句踐與荊軻博 ,爭 道 ,魯句踐怒而叱之 ,荊軻嘿而逃去,遂 不 復 會 。 - ^ Sima, Qian.
史記 /卷 106 [Records of the Grand Historian vol.106] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.孝文 時 ,吳 太子 入 見 ,得 侍 皇太子 飲 博 。吳 太子 師傅 皆 楚 人 ,輕 悍,又 素 驕 ,博 ,爭 道 ,不 恭 ,皇太子 引博局 提 吳 太子 ,殺 之 。 - ^ Xu, Liu.
列 传第一 百 一 十 一 [Biographies chapter 111].旧 唐 书 (Old Book of Tang) (in Chinese). 梦远书城 (my285.com). Retrieved 2009-06-26. - ^ Xue, Juzheng.
舊 五 代 史 /卷 135 [Old History of the Five Dynasties vol. 135] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26. - ^ Kong, Qiu.
論語 /陽 貨第十 七 [Analects ch. 17] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.子 曰:「飽食 終日 ,無 所用 心 ,難 矣哉!不 有 博 弈者乎?為之 ,猶 賢 乎已!」 - ^
孔子 家 語 /卷一 [Family Sayings of Confucius vol. 1] (in Chinese). 維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource). Retrieved 2009-06-26.哀 公 問 於孔子 曰:"吾 聞君子 不 博 ,有 之 乎?"孔子 曰:"有 之 。"公 曰:"何 為 ?"對 曰:"為 其二 乘 。"公 曰:"有 二 乘 ,則 何 為 不 博 ?"子 曰:"為 其兼行 惡 道也 。"
External links
[edit]- Liubo Illustrated article by Jean-Louis Cazaux
- Pictures of Liubo artefacts on the Cultural China website
- Andrew West, Pictures of funerary statuettes of Liubo Players