Emperor Wu of Liang
| Emperor Wu of Liang | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Emperor of the Liang dynasty | |||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 30 April 502[1] – 12 June 549 | ||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | dynasty established, Emperor He as Emperor of Southern Qi | ||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Emperor Jianwen | ||||||||||||||||
| Pretender | Xiao Zhengde (from 548 to 549) | ||||||||||||||||
| Born | Xiao Lian'er ( 464 | ||||||||||||||||
| Died | 549 (aged 84–85) | ||||||||||||||||
| Burial | |||||||||||||||||
| Consorts | Empress Wude Empress Dowager Mu Empress Dowager Wenxuan | ||||||||||||||||
| Issue | See § Family | ||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||
| House | Lanling Xiao | ||||||||||||||||
| Father | Xiao Shunzhi | ||||||||||||||||
| Mother | Zhang Shangrou[2] | ||||||||||||||||
Emperor Wu of Liang (Chinese:
Emperor Wu established universities and extended the Confucian civil service exams, demanding that sons of nobles (
At the end of his reign, his unduly lenient attitude towards his clan's and officials' corruption and lack of dedication to the state came at a heavy price; when the general Hou Jing rebelled (
Background
[edit]Xiao Yan was born in 464, during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of Song. His father Xiao Shunzhi (
Xiao Yan had six other brothers born of Xiao Shunzhi's concubines. One of them, Xiao Xiu (475–518) is now mainly remembered because of his comparatively well-preserved funerary statuary ensemble near Nanjing.[6][7][8]
Around 481 or 482,[9] Xiao Yan married Chi Hui (郗徽), the daughter of Liu Song official Chi Ye (郗燁) and the Princess Xunyang. They had three daughters—Xiao Yuyao (
Career as Southern Qi official and general
[edit]Xiao Yan was considered intelligent and handsome in his youth, and he started his career as a Southern Qi official by serving as military assistant for Emperor Wu's son Xiao Zilun (
In 497, with Northern Wei again attacking, Xiao Yan was one of the generals that Emperor Ming sent to aid the embattled Yong Province (雍州, modern southwestern Henan and northwestern Hubei). Even though both he and his commander, Cui Huijing (
Civil war against Xiao Baojuan
[edit]When Xiao Baojuan became Southern Qi's emperor in 498 at age 15, his power was initially curbed by several high-level officials that his father Emperor Ming left in charge—including Emperor Ming's cousins Jiang Shi (
In 499, receiving report that the high-level officials were planning to, on account of his irrational behavior, remove him from the throne, Xiao Baojuan acted first and executed Jiang Shi and Jiang Si. Xiao Yaoguang, who wanted to be emperor himself and feared being the next target, started an unsuccessful coup and was soon defeated and killed. However, despite the contributions of Xiao Tanzhi, Xu Xiaosi, Liu Xuan, and the generals Shen Wenji (沈文
Xiao Baojuan sent Cui Huijing to try to recapture Shouyang. Cui Huijing, however, as soon as he left the capital Jiankang, turned his army around and marched on the capital, hoping to overthrow Xiao Baojuan and replace him with his brother Xiao Baoxuan (
Xiao Baojuan sent an army commanded by the general Liu Shanyang (
In spring 501, Xiao Yingzhou declared Xiao Baorong emperor (as Emperor He), a declaration that Xiao Yan recognized. Xiao Yingzhou had himself and Xiao Yan given equivalent titles, and Xiao Yingzhou remained at Jiangling (
Around the new year 502, Xiao Baojuan's generals Wang Zhenguo (
Establishment of the Liang dynasty
[edit]Xiao Yan soon conspired to gain the throne for himself. Consulting with his old friends Shen Yue and Fan Yun, he put his brothers and associates into important posts, while having Empress Dowager Wang grant him higher and higher honors and titles, while delaying Emperor He's return to the capital. He also began to execute Emperor He's brothers and cousins one by one, to eliminate the possibility of resisting his moves. (Emperor He's brother Xiao Baoyin the Prince of Poyang, however, would escape to Northern Wei, and for decades would pose a threat as a Northern Wei general.) He had himself created as Duke of Liang and then Prince of Liang, and given the nine bestowments, all signs of an impending takeover. Only with these preparations in place did he have Emperor He sent back toward the capital. In the spring of 502 however, while Emperor He had only reached Gushu (
Early reign
[edit]The early reign of Emperor Wu was considered to be Liang dynasty's prime. He was considered diligent and frugal, and he tried to foster willingness for his officials to have different opinions than his. However, an immediate troubling sign for his reign, which would become increasingly serious as time went on, was how he appeared to be willing to tolerate corruption by his own family members, particularly his brother Xiao Hong the Prince of Linchuan, and those high-level officials who he felt contributed to his establishment of Liang.
Emperor Wu also became the first emperor in Southern dynasties' history to explicitly grant prime ministerial authorities to designated officials who were not prime ministers in name. He first granted those authorities to Fan Yun, and after Fan's death in 503, granted those authorities to Zhou She and Xu Mian, even though neither officially carried a high rank until late in their careers.
Two immediate threats that Emperor Wu had to deal with upon ascending the throne were rebellions by Chen Bozhi, who did not feel secure in his position despite Emperor Wu's permitting him to remain as the governor of Jiang Province, and Liu Jilian (
However, in fall 503, Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei, with a mind of having Xiao Baoyin reestablish Southern Qi as a puppet state, commissioned Xiao Baoyin and Chen with armies, and further sent his father Emperor Xiaowen's cousin Yuan Cheng (
In 511, when Emperor Wu received petition from an old peasant, who stopped him on the road when he was in the vicinity of Jiankang to offer sacrifices to heaven, that his criminal laws were too severe for the commoners (in particular, if one person committed a crime, the entire clan is punished), while being overly relaxing for officials and nobles, Emperor Wu considered revisions to the law. However, at the end, all he carried out was that criminals' clan members would not be required to undergo hard labor if they had seniors or children in their household, and he did not further reform his laws.
Starting in 514, Emperor Wu started carrying out a major construction project, downstream from Shouyang on the Huai River—a major dam that was intended to create a reservoir to flood Shouyang to allow Liang to capture the city. He started the project despite opposition from his engineers (who believed that the Huai River contained too much dirt in its water for a dam of the size necessary to be built). Despite engineering difficulties, however, the dam was successfully built by the general Kang Xuan (
It is unclear when Emperor Wu began to be a devout Buddhist, but by 517 Buddhist influences on his policies began to be plain. That year, he ordered that imperial textile factories not weave gods and animals on clothes, because when the clothes undergo further manufacturing, the patterns might be damaged, showing disrespect to the gods and hurtfulness to the animals. In a further break from Confucian tradition, he considered making sacrifices to imperial ancestors vegetarian, instead of traditional animal sacrifices of goats, pigs, and cows, and the sacrifices were first changed to using dried meat, and then eventually to mock animals made from flour, vegetables, and fruits, and this change was despite popular opinion that this would bring displeasure from the ancestors.
Middle Reign
[edit]In 522, Emperor Wu's nephew Xiao Zhengde—whom he had previously adopted but then unadopted when Xiao Tong was born—resentful that he was not created crown prince, fled to Northern Wei, claiming to be the deposed crown prince and requesting Northern Wei aid. However, Northern Wei did not take his claim seriously, and in 523 Xiao Zhengde fled back to Liang. Instead of punishing Xiao Zhengde, however, Emperor Wu merely rebuked him tearfully, and in fact restored him to his title of Marquess of Xifeng.
In winter 523, with his state plagued by forgeries of its copper coins, Emperor Wu abolished copper coins and started minting iron coins. (The actual fiscal impact of this act was unclear, but traditional Chinese historians generally considered iron to be unsuitable to use for coinage.)
In 524, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Northern Wei's southern territory, with Northern Wei forces occupied with fighting agrarian rebellions to the north and west. Liang forces largely met little resistance. Further, in spring 525, the Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (
Over the years, Emperor Wu had increasingly given additional authorities to Xiao Tong the Crown Prince, and the relationship between father and son was dear. However, in 526, after the death of Xiao Tong's mother Consort Ding Lingguang (
In 527, Emperor Wu made his first offering of himself to the service of Buddha (
In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord Erzhu Rong overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu (after she killed her own son, Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei, with poison), a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue (
In fall 529, Emperor Wu made his second offering of himself to the service of Buddha at Tongtai Monastery—but contrary to the first time he did, when he simply spent three days at the monastery, he stripped himself of imperial clothing and wore those of monks, and spent all day carrying out monastic tasks, including daily chores and giving of lectures on the Nirvana Sutra. He spent 12 days at the monastery, and returned to the palace only after the imperial offices made a huge donation to it—formally, to ransom "the Emperor Bodhisattva."
In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei—by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530.
Xiao Tong's Death
[edit]
In 531, Xiao Tong who was the Crown Prince at the time died, and Emperor Wu personally attended his wake and buried him in a tomb appropriate for an emperor. He also summoned Xiao Tong's oldest son, Xiao Huan (
In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed.
In 534, with Mars seen in the Dipper constellation—traditionally thought to be a sign that the emperor would be forced to leave the palace—Emperor Wu tried to divert the ill fortune by walking barefoot around his palace. However, he soon heard that Northern Wei's Emperor Xiaowu had fled Luoyang in a dispute with Gao splitting Northern Wei into two separate countries. Wu, both glad and embarrassed, stated, "Is it that even barbarians correspond to astrological signs?"
Late Reign
[edit]
With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on the borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years. It had been the case throughout Emperor Wu's reign that he was overly lenient to his relatives and high-level officials, but the trend appeared to become more severe late in his reign. His sons, all imperial princes, also grew increasingly disobedient of central authority, often acting as de facto emperors within their provincial domains.
By 537, Emperor Wu was at a détente with Eastern Wei, and ambassadors from both states often visited the other. While there was no such formal arrangement with Western Wei, there appeared to be few border conflicts after this point. With Eastern Wei and Western Wei locked into war, Liang was largely at peace. With Zhou She having died in 524 and Xu Mian having died in 535, Emperor Wu largely entrusted the government to Zhu Yi and He Jingrong (
In 539, based on Zhu's recommendation, Emperor Wu carried out a reorganization of the provincial divisions, placing the provinces into five classes based on their sizes and populations. After the reorganization, there were 108 provinces in total (20 of the first class, 10 of the second class, eight of the third class, 23 of the fourth class, and 21 of the fifth class), with the smaller provinces often consisting of single villages in southern and southwestern border regions.
In 541, the Vietnamese people of Jiao Province (交州, roughly modern Hanoi, Vietnam), dissatisfied at the cruel rule of the governor Xiao Zi (
In 545, Emperor Wu's official He Chen (
- The emperor was filially pious, loving, humble, frugal, knowledgeable, and good at writing. He extensively studied mysticism, astrology, horseriding, archery, music, calligraphy, and weiqi. He worked hard, and even in the coldest winter times, he would get up at the fourth watch [between 3:00 a.m. and 4:00 a.m.] to review important matters of state, and as his pen-wielding hand is exposed to the cold air, his skin would break. Ever since the era of Tianjian [from 502 to 519], he became a Buddhist and ate only vegetarian meals, not meat, and his single daily meal only contained vegetables and rough rice grains. Sometimes, when he was busy, he would flush his mouth and no longer eat after noon. He wore cloth and used bed covers made of bombax ceiba. Each hat he wore, he would use for three years, and each comforter he used, he would use for two years. Within the palace, starting from Guifei [first-ranked consort], their skirts would not be long enough to reach the ground. The emperor disliked alcohol, and unless he was offering sacrifices to the ancestors, feasting with the imperial officials, or holding Buddhist ceremonies, he used no music. Even when he was alone in a dark room, he wore proper clothing and sat carefully. No matter how hot the weather was, he would not peel up his sleeves or expose his arms. He treated palace servants as honored guests. However, he was overly lenient to the officials. The provincial and commandery governors often extracted wealth from the people. The messengers that he sent out to the locales often improperly pressured, criticized, or extorted from the locales. He trusted evil people and liked to criticize people for minor faults. He built many Buddhist towers and temples, inflicting great burdens on the government and the people. The area south of the Yangtze River had long peace, and as a result became wasteful in lifestyle. All of what He Chen said was true, but it was particularly because what he said was true that the emperor became angry.
In 546, Emperor Wu made his third offering of himself to the service of the Buddha. He spent more than a month at Tongtai Temple, before a fire that destroyed the temple tower caused him to return to the palace.
The Hou Jing disturbance and death
[edit]
In 547, Gao Huan died, and was succeeded as the paramount authority in Eastern Wei by his son Gao Cheng. The Eastern Wei general Hou Jing, because he disliked the young Gao Cheng and considered himself superior, rebelled. He first surrendered the 13 provinces that he was in charge—all south of the Yellow River and north of the Huai River, to Western Wei, but believing that he would also not be tolerated by Western Wei's paramount general Yuwen Tai, Hou then surrendered nine of the 13 provinces (minus the four that he had turned over to Western Wei forces in exchange for help) to Liang.
Emperor Wu initially hesitated himself at whether to accept Hou's surrender, particularly because a number of his officials, including Xie Ju (
Hou, with aid from Western Wei and Liang, initially stood Eastern Wei attacks. However, when Yuwen subsequently demanded that he proceed to the Western Wei capital Chang'an to greet Emperor Wen of Western Wei, Hou turned against Western Wei forces commanded by Wang Sizheng (
Murong then turned his attention against Hou, meeting Hou at Woyang (
With Eastern Wei having recovered all nine of the provinces that Hou had surrendered to Liang, Gao Cheng now sent overtures to Emperor Wu, requesting that peace be reinstated, offering to return Xiao Yuanming and Hou's relatives. Hou opposed peace, suspecting Gao Cheng's intentions, and he also did not trust Emperor Wu's subsequent guarantees never to betray him. Hou's fears were further increased when Emperor Wu sent ambassadors to mourn Gao Huan. Hou decided to test Emperor Wu by forging a letter from Gao Cheng, offering to swap Xiao Yuanming for Hou—and when Emperor Wu then responded, "If you return Yuanming in the morning, I will return Hou Jing in the evening" against the advice of Fu Qi (
Initially, Emperor Wu did not take Hou's rebellion seriously, and he made the comment, "I can break off a tree branch and kill him with it." He sent his son Xiao Guan (
The provincial governors, led by Xiao Guan and Xiao Yi the Prince of Xiangdong, meanwhile, were beginning to put a relief force together, and Xiao Guan arrived around the new year 549, but was defeated by Hou and was unable to lift the siege. Meanwhile, Yang died, and the people inside the palace walls grew increasingly desperate. As the siege went on, however, more Liang provincial forces converged, and they supported Liu Zhongli (
With Hou's forces tired, however, Hou sued for peace, stating that he was willing to return to Shouyang if Emperor Wu was willing to cede four provinces west of the Yangtze River to him and willing to send Xiao Gang's oldest son Xiao Daqi the Prince of Xuancheng as a hostage. Emperor Wu agreed—except for sending Xiao Daqi's younger brother Xiao Dakuan (
Meanwhile, Emperor Wu continued to resist some of Hou's demands, and when Hou requested that certain of his associates by named to high-level posts, Emperor Wu refused. Hou reacted by reducing Emperor Wu's supplies, and in summer 549, Emperor Wu died. (It is unclear whether he died from illness or from starvation.) It was recorded that as he was dying, his mouth was bitter, and he wanted honey, but no one responded to his request. Hou allowed Xiao Gang to take the throne (as Emperor Jianwen) to succeed him.
Buddhist legends
[edit]Emperor Wu is remembered by many Buddhists today for the many contributions he gave to the faith. There are a few stories that revolve around his involvement with Buddhism.
Emperor Wu features in the first case of the Blue Cliff Record.[13] Imperial officials disapproved of the dialogue recited in the first case, viewing it as against the dignity of the throne.[14]
Family
[edit]Consorts and Issue:
- Empress Wude, of the Xi clan of Gaoping (
武德 皇后 高平 郗氏; 468–499), personal name Hui (徽)- Princess Yongxing (
永興 公主 ; d. 529), personal name Yuyao (玉 姚), first daughter- Married Yin Jun (
殷 均 )
- Married Yin Jun (
- Princess Yongshi (
永世 公主 ), personal name Yuwan (玉 婉)- Married Xie Mo of Chen (
陳 郡 謝 謨), a son of Xie Tiao - Married Wang Yin of Langya (琊瑯
王 𬤇)
- Married Xie Mo of Chen (
- Princess Yongkang (
永 康 公主 ), personal name Yuhuan (玉 嬛)
- Princess Yongxing (
- Empress Dowager Mu, of the Ding clan (
穆 皇太后 丁 氏 ; 484–526), personal name Lingguang (令 光 ) - Empress Dowager Wenxuan, of the Ruan clan (
文宣 皇太后 阮氏; 477–542), personal name Lingying (令 嬴)- Xiao Yi, Emperor Yuan (
元 皇帝 蕭 繹; 508–555), seventh son
- Xiao Yi, Emperor Yuan (
- Shuyuan, of the Wu clan (
敬 淑 媛 吳 氏 ; d. 527), personal name Jinghui (景 暉 )- Xiao Zan, Prince Yuzhang (
豫 章 王 蕭 贊 ; 502–531), second son, adopted
- Xiao Zan, Prince Yuzhang (
- Shuyi, of the Dong clan (
淑 儀 董 氏 )- Xiao Ji, Prince Nankangjian (
南 康 簡王蕭 績; 505–529), fourth son
- Xiao Ji, Prince Nankangjian (
- Chonghua, of the Ding clan (
充 華 丁 氏 )- Xiao Lun, Prince Shaolingxie (邵陵攜王
蕭 綸; 507–551), sixth son
- Xiao Lun, Prince Shaolingxie (邵陵攜王
- Xiurong, of the Ge clan (
修 容 葛 氏 )- Xiao Ji, Prince Wuling Zhenxian (
武 陵 貞 獻 王 蕭 紀 ; 508–553), eighth son
- Xiao Ji, Prince Wuling Zhenxian (
- Unknown
- Princess Anji (
安吉 公主 ), personal name Yuzhi (玉 娡)- Married Wang Shi of Langya, Duke Jiancheng (琊瑯
王 實 )
- Married Wang Shi of Langya, Duke Jiancheng (琊瑯
- Princess Fuyangdao (
富 陽 悼公主 ), fourth daughter- Married Zhang Zuan of Fanyang (范陽
張 纘; 499–549), and had issue (two sons, two daughters)
- Married Zhang Zuan of Fanyang (范陽
- Princess Changcheng (
長城 公主 ), personal name Yuling (玉 姈)- Married Liu Yan of Hedong (
河東 柳 偃; d. 550), and had issue (one child, Lady Liu)
- Married Liu Yan of Hedong (
- Princess Yongjia (
永 嘉 公主 )- Married Wang Quan of Langya (琊瑯
王 銓)
- Married Wang Quan of Langya (琊瑯
- Princess Anji (
Ancestry
[edit]| Xiao Fuzi | |||||||||||||||
| Xiao Daoci (385–447) | |||||||||||||||
| Xiao Shunzhi | |||||||||||||||
| Emperor Wu of Liang (464–549) | |||||||||||||||
| Zhang Cihui | |||||||||||||||
| Zhang Muzhi | |||||||||||||||
| Empress Wenxian (d. 471) | |||||||||||||||
Genealogy
[edit]- Xiao Zheng (萧整)
- Xiao Juan (萧隽)
- Xiao Lezi (萧乐
子 )- Xiao Chengzhi (萧承
之 )
- Xiao Chengzhi (萧承
- Xiao Lezi (萧乐
- Xiao Xia (萧辖)
- Xiao Fuzi (萧副
子 )- Xiao Daoci (萧道赐)
- Xiao Shunzhi (萧顺
之 )
- Xiao Shunzhi (萧顺
- Xiao Daoci (萧道赐)
- Xiao Fuzi (萧副
- Xiao Juan (萧隽)
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ According to Xiao Yan's biography in Book of Liang, he ascended the throne on the bingyin day of the 4th month of the 1st year of the Tianjian era of his reign. This corresponds to 30 Apr 502 in the Julian calendar.(
天 监元年 夏 四 月 丙 寅 ，高祖 即 皇帝 位 于南郊 。) Liang Shu, vol.02 - ^ Lady Zhang was a descendant (5x-great-granddaughter) of Zhang Hua (
父 穆 之 ，字 思 静 ，晋 司 空 华六 世 孙。) Liang Shu, vol.07. - ^ According to Xiao Yan's biography in Book of Liang, he died aged 86 (by East Asian reckoning) on the bingchen day of the 5th month of the 3rd year of the Taiqing era of his reign. This corresponds to 12 Jun 549 in the Julian calendar.[(
太 清 三 年 )五 月 丙 辰 ，高祖 崩 於净居 殿 ，時 年 八 十 六 .] Liang Shu, vol.03 - ^ ([
太 清 三 年 ]五 月 ，丙 辰 ，上 卧净居 殿 ，口 苦 ，索 蜜 不 得 ，再 曰：“荷 ！荷 ！”遂 殂。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.162 - ^ (
生 长沙宣 武 王 懿、永 阳昭王 敷 ，次生 高祖 。 ...次生 衡阳宣 王 畅、义兴昭 长公主 令 嫕。) Liang Shu, vol.07 - ^ Benn, James A. (2007), Burning for the Buddha: self-immolation in Chinese Buddhism, Issue 19 of Studies in East Asian Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 3, 243, 261, ISBN 978-0-8248-2992-6
- ^ Albert E. Dien, «Six Dynasties Civilization». Yale University Press, 2007 ISBN 0-300-07404-2. Partial text on Google Books. P. 190. A reconstruction of the original form of the ensemble is shown in Fig. 5.19.
- ^
梁 安成 康 王 萧秀墓石 刻 Archived 2013-10-19 at the Wayback Machine (Sculptures at the Tomb of Xiao Xiu) (in Chinese) (description and modern photos) - ^ late Jian'yuan era of Xiao Daocheng's reign, per Lady Chi's biography in Book of Liang
- ^ According to Xiao Baojuan's biography in Book of the Southern Qi, Xiao Yi was killed on the jimao day of the 10th month of the 2nd year of the Yongyuan era of his reign. This corresponds to 19 Nov 500 in the Julian calendar. [(
永 元 二 年 )冬 十 月 己 卯 ，害 尚 书令萧懿。] Nan Qi Shu, vol.07 - ^ According to Xiao Yan's biography in Book of Liang, the gathering of officers took place on the yisi day of the 11th month of the 2nd year of the Yongyuan era of Xiao Baojuan's reign. This corresponds to 15 Dec 500 in the Julian calendar. [(
永 元 二 年 )十 一月乙巳召僚佐集于厅事...] Book of Liang, vol.01 - ^ According to Xiao Baojuan's biography in Book of the Southern Qi, Xiao Yan rose in rebellion in the 12th month of the 2nd year of the Yongyuan era of his reign. This corresponds to 5 Jan to 3 Feb 501 in the Julian calendar. [(
永 元 二 年 )十 二 月 ，雍州刺史 梁 王 起 义兵于襄阳。] Nan Qi Shu, vol.07 - ^ Sullivan, Matthew Juksan (2021). The Garden of Flowers and Weeds: a New Translation and Commentary on the Blue Cliff Record. Monkfish Book Publishing Company. pp. 3–8. ISBN 9781948626491.
- ^ Sullivan, Matthew Juksan (2021). The Garden of Flowers and Weeds: a New Translation and Commentary on the Blue Cliff Record. Monkfish Book Publishing Company. p. 5. ISBN 9781948626491.
| International | |
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- Southern Qi regents
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