Dakini
Part of a series on |
Vajrayana Buddhism |
---|
A ḍākinī (Sanskrit: डाकिनी; Tibetan: མཁའ་འགྲོ་མ་, Wylie: mkha' 'gro ma, THL: khandroma; Mongolian: хандарма; Chinese:
The concept of the ḍākinī somewhat differs depending on the context and the tradition. For example, in earlier Hindu texts and East Asian esoteric Buddhism, the term denotes a race of demonesses who ate the flesh and/or vital essence of humans. In Hindu Tantric literature, Ḍākinī is the name of a goddess often associated with one of the six chakras or the seven fundamental elements (dhātu) of the human body. In Nepalese and Tibetan Buddhism, meanwhile, 'ḍākinī' (also wisdom ḍākinī) can refer to both what can be best described as fierce-looking female embodiments of enlightened energy, and to human women with a certain amount of spiritual development, both of whom can help Tantric initiates in attaining enlightenment.
In Japan, the ḍākinīs – held in the East Asian Buddhist tradition to have been subjugated and converted to Buddhism by the buddha Vairocana under the guise of the god Mahākāla (Daikokuten in Japanese) – were eventually coalesced into a single deity called Dakiniten (荼枳
Etymology
The Sanskrit term ḍākinī is related to ḍīyate, "to fly", as in uḍḍayanam (meaning "flight"). The Tibetan khandroma (Tibetan: མཁའ་འགྲོ་མ་, Wylie: mkha' 'gro ma), meaning "sky-goer", may have originated from the Sanskrit khecara (of the same meaning), a term from the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra.[3] The masculine form of the word is ḍāka, which is usually translated into Tibetan as pawo, "hero" (Wylie: dpa' bo).[3]
In Chinese, ḍākinī is transcribed mainly as 荼枳
In Hinduism
As demonesses
In certain passages in Hindu Purāṇic literature, ḍākinīs are depicted as flesh-eating demonesses in the train of the goddess Kālī.[6][7] For instance, in the Shiva Purāṇa (2.2.33), Vīrabhadra and Mahākāḷī at Shiva's command march against Prajapati Daksha accompanied by the Nine Durgas and their fearsome attendants, namely "Ḍākinī, Śākinī, Bhūtas, Pramathas, Guhyakas, Kūṣmāṇḍas, Parpaṭas, Caṭakas, Brahma-Rākṣasas, Bhairavas and Kṣetrapālas."[8] In the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa (3.41.30), Paraśurāma sees ḍākinīs among Shiva's retinue (gaṇa) in Mount Kailash.[9]
In the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (10.06.27–29), after the young Krishna had killed the demoness Pūtanā, the cowherd women (gopis) of Vrindavan carry out protective rites to keep him safe from future harm. At the end of the ritual, they declare:
The Dākinīs, the Yātudhānīs, the Kūṣmāṇḍas, the infanticides, the goblins [Bhūtas], the Mātṛs, the Piśācas, the Yakṣas, the Rakṣasas, the Vināyakas, Kotarī, Revatī, Jyeṣṭhā, Pūtanā, and other Mātṛkās, Unmāda, Apasmāra, and other devils inimical to the mind, the body and the senses, and other evil omens and calamities dreamt of, and the slayers of the old and the young,—may these and all other evil spirits be destroyed, being terrified at the recital of the name of Viṣṇu.[a]
As a goddess
Other texts meanwhile apparently use 'Ḍākinī' as the name of a goddess. In the Lalitopākhyāna ("Narrative of [the goddess] Lalitā") section of the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, Ḍākinī is one of the deities who guards the chariot of the boar-faced goddess Daṇḍanāthā, one of Lalitā's generals.[10]
Seven deities called Dhātunāthās were stationed in their respective places beneath the same step. They were Yakṣiṇī, Śaṅkhinī, Lākinī, Hākinī, Śākinī, Ḍākinī and (another) Hākinī who had the united (and combined) forms of all of them. All these demonstrated the exploits of their mighty arms. They appeared ready to drink (i.e. destroy) all living beings and the Earth. They drank and consumed the seven Dhātus, essential ingredients, of the body (viz. the blood), skin, flesh, fat, bones, marrow and the semen of enemies. They had hideous faces. With their harsh leonine roars they filled ten-quarters. They were called Dhātunāthās and they were the bestowers of eight Siddhis beginning with Aṇimā (minuteness).
They were experts in deluding, slaying, paralysing (stupefying), striking, swallowing, and exterminating the wicked Daityas. In regard to those who are habitually devout, they were competent to annihilate all adversities. They were called Dhātunāthās (since) they were present in all Dhātus (essential secretions of the body).[10]
A chapter detailing the mode of worship of the goddess Kubjikā contained in the Agni Purāṇa instructs that the goddesses "Ḍākinī, Rākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī, and Yakṣiṇī should be worshipped in the six directions (coming) from the north-west."[11]
In Tantric literature, Ḍākinī the goddess is usually associated with the saptadhātus (the seven primary constituent elements of the human body) or the six chakras. The Kubjikāmata Tantra for instance enumerates seven yoginī goddesses (Kusumamālinī, Yakṣiṇī, Śaṅkhinī, Kākinī, Lākinī, Rākinī, and Ḍākinī) to whom the ritual practitioner symbolically offers his semen, bones, marrow, fat, flesh, blood and skin, respectively. A nearly identical listing of goddesses can be found in a later text belonging to the same tradition, the Śrīmatottara Tantra: here, the names listed are Dākinī, Rākinī, Lākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī, Hākinī, Yākinī and Kusumā.[12] Another chapter in the Kubjikāmata Tantra lists two sequences of six goddesses, assigned to each of the six chakras: the first denotes the creative "northern course" of the six chakras, from the ājñā down to the ādhāra, while the latter – comprising Ḍākinī, Rākinī, Lākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī and Hākinī – denotes the destructive "southern course", in reverse order.[12]
Later Tantric texts such as the Rudrayāmala Tantra identify Ḍākinī, Rākinī, Lākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī and Hākinī with the six chakras, the dhātus and the five elements plus the mind.[12][13] This work associates Ḍākinī with the mūlādhāra chakra, Rākinī with svādhiṣṭhāna, Lākinī with maṇipūra, Kākinī with anāhata, Śākinī with viśuddhi, and Hākinī with ājñā. The Śrīmatottara Tantra places Kusumamāla (absent in the Rudrayāmala Tantra) at the feet, while other texts place a figure named Yākinī at the level of the sahasrāra.[12]
In Buddhism
As flesh-eaters
In a chapter criticizing meat-eating in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Gautama Buddha refers to dākas and ḍākinīs – described as "terrible eaters of human flesh" – as the offspring of the carnivorous King Kalmaśapada ("Spotted Feet"), who was born after a human king had mated with a lioness.[14][15]
In East Asian Buddhism, the ḍākinīs are mainly known via the story of their subjugation by the wrathful deity Mahākāla found in a commentary on the Mahāvairocana Tantra (also known as the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra) by the Tang dynasty monk Yi Xing. According to the story, the buddha Vairocana, wishing to stop the ḍākinīs from preying on humans, took the form of Mahākāla, summoned the ḍākinīs before him, and then swallowed them all, declaring that he would release them on the condition that they cease devouring human flesh. When the ḍākinīs complained that this would lead them to starvation, Mahākāla as a concession allowed them to consume the vital essence of deceased humans known as 'human yellow' (
[The ḍākinīs'] chief was the yakṣa Maheśvara, who worldly people say is the ultimate [god]. They were subject to Mahākāla, the god called the "Great Black One" (
大黑 ). Vairocana, employing the method of Trailokyavijaya and wanting to exterminate them, transformed himself into Mahākāla, exceeding him in an immeasurable manifestation. His body smeared with ashes in a desolate place, he summoned with his magical art all the ḍākinīs, who had all of the magical powers [such as] flying, walking on water and being completely unhindered. He upbraided them, saying: "Since you alone always devour people, now I will eat you!" Then he swallowed them, but did not allow them to die. Once they have submitted, he released them, completely forbidding them to [eat] flesh. They spoke to the Buddha, saying, "We presently eat flesh to survive. How can we sustain ourselves now?" The Buddha said, "I will permit you to eat the hearts of dead people." They said, "When a man is about to die, the māhāyakṣas and so forth know that his life is exhausted, and they race there to eat him, so how can we get [our share]?" The Buddha said, "I will teach you the mantra procedures and mudrās. You will be able to know six months before someone dies, and knowing this, you should protect him with this method, so he will not fear being injured. When his life has expired, then you can seize and eat [his heart]." In this way, they were gradually induced to embark upon the [Buddhist] path.[18][19]
Other texts meanwhile assign the taming of the ḍākinīs to other figures such as Vajrapāṇi or the Wisdom King Acala (Fudō Myōō in Japanese).[15] Indeed, in Japanese esoteric Buddhism Acala is believed to have the power to extend the lifespan of his devotees and was thus invoked in certain life-prolonging rituals against soul-stealing demons such as ḍākinīs.[20] Like Mahākāla, Acala is interpreted in the Japanese tradition as a wrathful avatar of Vairocana, with some texts even identifying Mahākāla as Acala's "trace" (suijaku) or manifestation.[20][21]
A dictionary compiled by the Tang dynasty monk Huilin (
In Japanese Buddhism
Emergence and development of cult
The ḍākinī imagery arrived in Japan via Kūkai's introduction of Tangmi (East Asian esoteric Buddhism) to the country in the beginning of the 9th century (early Heian period) in the form of the Shingon school.[24] The Womb Realm (Garbhakoṣadhātu) Mandala, one of the two main mandalas of Shingon Buddhism, depicts three ḍākinīs in the southern (right-hand side) part of the mandala's Outer Vajra section (
The ḍākinīs were, as per their placement in the Womb Realm Mandala, originally revered as part of Yama's (Enmaten's) retinue, mainly figuring in rituals centered around the deity. A ḍākinī (not yet the medieval Dakiniten), depicted as a long-haired woman holding a bag, also appears in the Enmaten mandalas of the late Heian period as one of the god's attendants.[22] It was after the Insei period of the late 11th to mid-12th century, during which Japan was effectively under the rule of retired ("cloistered") emperors, that a cult centered around the deified ḍākinī as a single goddess named 'Dakiniten' emerged independent of the Enmaten ritual.[22] As the cult of Dakiniten flourished, its rite became famous for being particularly effective for obtaining worldly benefits and was thus especially attractive to the politically ambitious; at the same time, however, the ritual was viewed with suspicion within some circles as a dangerous, "heterodox" (
It is difficult to trace the exact origins of the Japanese Dakiniten cult. While a number of medieval texts claim the ritual's lineage started with eminent esoteric masters such as Amoghavajra or Vajrabodhi, the lineage may more plausibly be traced back to 10th century Shingon monks such as the Jingo-ji priest Kengyō (鑒教) or the Tō-ji abbot Kanshuku (
The rapid rise of certain notable figures to prominence, as well as their decline, have been popularly attributed to Dakiniten. A certain anecdote regarding the military leader Taira no Kiyomori found in the Genpei Jōsuiki (one of a number of variants of the Heike Monogatari) claims that Kiyomori once shot an arrow at a fox during a hunt. The fox then transformed into a woman who promised to grant Kiyomori whatever he wanted in exchange for her life. Kiyomori, realizing this woman is none other than the goddess Kiko Tennō (
According to the Kamakura period work Kokon Chomonjū, the late Heian period nobleman Fujiwara no Tadazane commissioned the performance of the Dakiniten rite for seven days as he was about to be sent into exile. At the end of that period, a fox came to eat his offering, a rice cake. He then later had a dream in which he was visited by a beautiful young woman. When she was getting ready to leave, he grasped her hair to hold her back, at which he woke up finding himself holding a fox's tail in his hands. The next day, instead of being exiled, he was promoted to a high rank. Attributing this turn of events to Dakiniten, Tadazane in thanksgiving worshiped the fox tail as a symbol of the deity.[26][32]
Other people claimed to have attained positions of authority due to their devotion to Dakiniten include the monk Ningai (951–1046), the founder of the Ono branch (
Dakiniten and Inari
Dakiniten's cult flourished mainly via the network of Inari worship and vice versa; the former, because of her association with the fox (kitsune), became closely linked with the latter, as foxes were seen as the messengers of the Inari deity. Dakiniten came to be identified with the native agricultural kami Ukanomitama, Toyouke, and Ukemochi (all of whom were themselves conflated both with the god of Inari and with each other), with her iconography probably being informed by these goddesses.[35] A late Kamakura period text called the Inari-ki (
The assimilation of Dakiniten and Inari (or rather, Ukanomitama) can also be observed in the origin story of the Dakiniten Hall at Shinnyo-dō in Kyoto. The story relates that a monk who was a worshiper of Dakiniten had just finished reciting the 600-fascicle Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra when a white fox holding a jewel (cintāmaṇi) in its mouth appeared on the altar. The fox then transformed into a youth, who declared that he was the deity Ukanomitama and that his jewel grants all wishes.[39]
In popular religion, Dakiniten was also identified with a fox goddess worshiped at Mount Inari known variously as Akomachi (
The cult of Dakiniten and that of Inari became inextricably fused that the name 'Inari' was even applied to places of Dakiniten worship, such as Toyokawa Inari (Myōgon-ji), a Sōtō Zen temple in Toyokawa, Aichi Prefecture, where the goddess known as Toyokawa Dakini Shinten (
Another notable 'Inari' sanctuary is the Nichiren-shū temple Myōkyō-ji – popularly known as Saijō Inari (
Imperial enthronement ceremony
From the Middle Ages up until the Meiji period, the enthronement ceremony of the Japanese emperor featured Buddhist elements. One such ritual performed during the emperor's accession was the sokui kanjō (
The origins of sokui kanjō are shrouded in mystery; one tradition claims that a disciple of Ningai, Seison (
The connection between the fox, Dakiniten, and Amaterasu can also be seen in the Keiran Shūyōshū, which features the following retelling of the myth of Amaterasu's hiding:
Question: What was the appearance of Amaterasu when she was hiding in the Rock-Cave of Heaven?
Answer: Since Amaterasu is the sun deity, she had the appearance of the sun-disc. Another tradition says: When Amaterasu retired into the Rock-Cave of Heaven after her descent from Heaven (sic), she took on the appearance of a dragon-fox (shinko). Uniquely among all animals, the dragon-fox is a kami that emits light from its body; this is the reason why she took on this appearance.
Question: Why does the dragon-fox emit light?
Answer: The dragon-fox is an expedient body of Nyoirin Kannon. It takes the wish-fulfilling gem as its body, and is therefore called King Cintāmaṇi. ... Further, one tradition says that one becomes a king by revering the dragon-fox because the dragon-fox is an expedient body of Amaterasu.[55]
Commenting on the sokui kanjō, Bernard Faure writes:[56]
under the name "Fox King," Dakiniten became a manifestation of the sun goddess Amaterasu, with whom the new emperor united during the enthronement ritual. [...] The Buddhist ritual allowed the ruler to symbolically cross over the limits separating the human and animal realms to harness the wild and properly superhuman energy of the "infrahuman" world, so as to gain full control of the human sphere.
Another type of secret enthronement ritual centered on Dakiniten took place on the Outer Shrine of Ise (Gekū) and was performed every morning and evening by the shrine's young female attendants or kora (
Connection with foxes
Although Dakini-ten was said to be a powerful Buddhist deity, the images and stories surrounding it in Japan in both medieval and modern times are drawn from local kitsune mythology. The modern folk belief, often printed in Japanese books about religion, is that the fox image was a substitute for the Indian jackal, but the black jackal and other black animals are associated with Kali.
In the early modern period, the ḍākinī rite devolved into various spells called Dakini-ten, Atago Gongen. Those who felt wronged in their village could go to a corrupt yamabushi who practiced black magic, and get him to trap a kitsune and cause it to possess a third party.[57] Reports of possession became especially common in the Edo and Meiji periods. For details, see kitsunetsuki.
Mantra
The Mahāvairocana Tantra assigns the following mantra to the ḍākinīs:
Sanskrit | Chinese characters |
---|---|
Namaḥ samanta-buddhānāṃ hrīḥ haḥ[58] |
The following mantra meanwhile is associated with Toyokawa Inari and is said to have been revealed by Dakiniten to Kangan Giin:
Chinese characters | Japanese (romanized) |
---|---|
唵尸 |
On shira batta niri un sowaka |
This mantra is traditionally interpreted as meaning: "When this spell is chanted, the faith in me reaches everywhere, and by the true power of the Buddhist precepts, evil and misfortune will be abolished and luck and wisdom attained; suffering removed and comfort achieved, and pain transformed into delight."[44]
In Tibetan Buddhism
Although ḍākinī figures appear in Hinduism and Bon, ḍākinīs occur most notably in Vajrayana Buddhism and especially Tibetan Buddhism. The khandroma, generally of volatile or wrathful temperament, acts somewhat as spiritual muse for spiritual practice. Dakinis are energetic beings in female form, evocative of the movement of energy in space. In this context, the sky or space indicates śūnyatā, the insubstantiality of all phenomena, which is, at the same time, the pure potentiality for all possible manifestations. [citation needed]
The ḍākinī appears in a Vajrayana formulation of the Buddhist refuge formula known as the Three Roots. Sometimes she appears as the dharmapala, alongside a guru and yidam.
The dakini, in her various guises, serves as each of the Three Roots. She may be a human guru, a vajra master who transmits the Vajrayana teachings to her disciples and joins them in samaya commitments. The wisdom dakini may be a yidam, a meditational deity; female deity yogas such as Vajrayogini are common in Tibetan Buddhism. Or she may be a protector; the wisdom dakinis have special power and responsibility to protect the integrity of oral transmissions."[61]
An archetypal ḍākinī in Tibetan Buddhism is Yeshe Tsogyal, consort of Padmasambhava.[3]
Classes
Judith Simmer-Brown, based on teachings she received from Tibetan lamas,[62] identifies four main classes of ḍākinī. These follow the twilight language tradition of esoteric Buddhism in referring to secret, inner, outer and outer-outer classes of ḍākinīs.
- The secret class of ḍākinī is prajnaparamita (Tibetan yum chenmo), the empty nature of reality according to Mahayana doctrine.
- The inner class of ḍākinī is the ḍākinī of the mandala, a meditational deity (Tibetan:yidam) and fully enlightened Buddha who helps the practitioner recognise their own Buddhahood.
- The outer ḍākinī is the physical form of the ḍākinī, attained through completion stage tantra practices such as the Six Yogas of Naropa that work with the subtle winds of the subtle body so that the practitioner's body is compatible with an enlightened mind.
- The outer-outer ḍākinī is a ḍākinī in human form. She is a yogini in her own right but may also be a karmamudrā, or consort, of a yogi or mahasiddha.
Dakinis can also be classified according to the Trikaya, or three bodies of buddhahood.
- The Dharmakāya ḍākinī, which is Samantabhadrī, represents the dharmadhatu where all phenomena appear.
- The Sambhogakāya ḍākinīs are the yidams used as meditational deities for tantric practice.
- The Nirmanakāya ḍākinīs are human women born with special potentialities; these are realized yoginis, consorts of gurus, or even all women in general as they may be classified into the Five Buddha Families.[63]
Daka
In some instances, the terms ḍāka and ḍākinī have been used for practitioners of tantric yoga themselves. In other instances, just ḍākinī was used for female practitioners, while male practitioners were just known as yogi. Padmasambhava was known as a yogi and Yeshe Tsogyal, a Tibetan princess, yogini and consort of Padmasambhava, as a ḍākinī.
The scholar Miranda Shaw stated that "In Sanskrit there is only one word, Dakini. There are only female Dakinis... there is no male Dakini. It is an impossibility and a contradiction in terms."[64] On the other hand, Pratapaditya Pal stated, "both dakas and dakinis occur frequently in Tibetan literature, though the latter predominate."[65]
Whereas Jan Willis in the chapter Ḑākinī; Some Comments on Its Nature and Meaning points out that "'she' is not 'female'. Though the ḍākinī assuredly most often appears in female form... this is but one of the myriad of ways Absolute Insight chooses to make manifest its facticity."[66][verify]
Tibetan Lamas trained in the Gelug school, such as Sermey Khensur Lobsang Tharchin,[67] and those of the Karma Kagyu school such as Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche,[68] write freely of "dakas and dakinis". Thubten Yeshe clarifies their meaning: "what are dakas and dakinis? Simply speaking they are males and females who possess advanced experiences of tantric transformation and control and are therefore able to increase the blissful wisdom of a highly qualified practitioner."[69]
In Anuttarayoga Tantra
Being associated with energy in all its functions, ḍākinīs are linked with the revelation of the Anuttarayoga Tantras, which represent the path of transformation, whereby the energy of negative emotions or kleshas, called poisons, is transformed into the luminous energy of enlightened awareness yielding the most profound experience of clear light. Thubten Yeshe explains:
When the completion stage practices have been mastered and we have gained control over our subtle energy winds and so forth, there will come a time when the dakas and dakinis will come... physically embracing such a consort is necessary to bring all the pervading energy winds into the central channel, a prerequisite for opening the heart center and experiencing the profoundest level of clear light.[69]
In Dzogchen
When considered as a stage on the Vajrayana Path, the ḍākinī is the final stages: the first is the guru, which corresponds to the initial realization of the true condition of reality, as this is introduced by the guru in the empowerment, if the disciple obtains what the Inner Tantras call peyi yeshe (Wylie: dpe yi ye shes) or the clarity of shunyata. The second is the devata, which corresponds to the meditation insofar as the devata is the method used for developing the state discovered in the initial realization of the true condition of reality. The third stage is the ḍākinī insofar as the ḍākinī is the source of the activities based on the realization of the guru and the meditation of the devata.
In Dzogchen these three correspond to tawa (lta ba), gompa (sgom pa) and chöpa (spyod pa): the first is the direct vision of the true nature of reality rather than an intellectual view of reality, as is the case with the term in other vehicles; the second is the continuity of this vision in sessions of meditation; and the third is the continuity of this vision in everyday activities. As a tantric practice, imperfections are used to make the vision uninterrupted. As the Base, the ḍākinīs are the energies of life; as the Path, they are the activities of advanced practitioners; as the Fruit, they are the actionless activities of realized Masters.[63]
See also
- Apsara – Type of female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hindu and Buddhist culture
- Daayan – Type of witch in Indian culture
- Simhamukha – Tibetan Buddhist wisdom dakini (deity)
- Toyokawa Inari – Buddhist temple in Toyokawa, Aichi, Japan
References
Notes
- ^ Translation based on Dutt 1895, p. 30. The transliteration of Sanskrit names have been changed to the currently widely used standard.
- ^ The goddess Ōmiyanome (claimed in the Kogo Shūi to be a daughter of the god Futodama) is currently considered to be the deity of the Upper Inari Shrine located on Mount Inari's peak Ichinomine (
一ノ峰 ),[41] although the actual shrine on the summit simply dubs the deity 'Suehiro Ōkami' (末広 大神 ).
Citations
- ^ "University of Michigan, Dakini / Artist Unknown, Nepal". University of Michigan Library Digital Collections. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ "Dakinis: Goddesses of Liberation in Buddhism". Learn Religions. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ a b c Buswell & Lopez (2013), p. [page needed].
- ^ a b c "荼枳
尼 天 ". Flying Deity Tobifudo (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in). Archived from the original on 8 May 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2021. - ^ a b "荼枳
尼 天 (Dakiniten)". コトバンク (kotobank) (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2021. - ^ Monier-Williams (1899).
- ^ Coulter & Turner (2013), p. 586.
- ^ Shastry (1970), p. [page needed].
- ^ Tagare (1958a), p. [page needed].
- ^ a b Tagare (1958b), p. [page needed].
- ^ Gangadharan (1954), pp. 413–416.
- ^ a b c d White (2003), pp. 221–229.
- ^ Timalsina (2016), p. 475.
- ^ Suzuki (1932), p. [page needed].
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 381.
- ^ Faure (2015a), p. 195.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 117–118.
- ^ a b Gray (2005), pp. 47–49.
- ^ Yī Xíng (
一 行 ). "大 毘盧遮那 成佛 經 疏卷 第 十 (Commentary on the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra, fascicle 10) – T. 848". SAT Daizokyo Text Database. Retrieved 29 April 2022. - ^ a b Faure (2015a), p. 136.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 55–56.
- ^ a b c Faure (2015b), p. 119.
- ^ Huìlín (
慧 琳). "一切經 音義 卷 十 (Yīqièjīng yīnyì, vol. 10) – T. 2128". SAT Daizokyo Text Database. Retrieved 21 April 2021.荼抧
尼 鷄 以反。梵語 女 鬼 之總 名 、能 魅 人 與 人通 者 也。 - ^ a b Boscaro (2003).
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 118–119.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 121.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 122.
- ^ "「
清 高 稲荷 神社 」について". Sightsinfo Project. Retrieved 8 July 2021. - ^ a b Haneda (2020), p. 70.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 121, 224–225.
- ^ Bathgate (2004), p. 154.
- ^ a b Smyers (1999), p. 84.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 121–122.
- ^ "
光 宗 (Kōshū)". コトバンク (Kotobank) (in Japanese). Retrieved 7 July 2021. - ^ a b c Faure (2015b), p. 123.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 134.
- ^ Hayakawa, et al. (2008), pp. 116–117.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 123, 134.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 138.
- ^ "
白狐 社 |稲荷 大神 のお使 いである白狐 を祀 る伏見 稲荷 大社 の末社 ". ふしみいなりガイド (in Japanese). 9 March 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2022. - ^ "Main Shrine Building (Honden)". Fushimi Inari Taisha Official Website. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ Aruga (2014), p. 221.
- ^ "
伏見 稲荷 大社 ".本地垂迹 資料 便覧 . Retrieved 30 April 2022. - ^ a b "Guide to Toyokawa Inari" (PDF). Toyokawa Inari Official Website. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 136.
- ^ "
最上 さまのこと". Shima-no-Bo Official Website (in Japanese). Retrieved 30 April 2022. - ^ "
最上 稲荷 について". Saijō Inari Official Website (in Japanese). 8 October 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2022. - ^ Kamikawa Michio (1990), pp. 257–263, 269.
- ^ Breen & Teeuwen (2013), pp. 113–117.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 125.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 132.
- ^ "
成 尊 (Seison)". コトバンク (Kotobank). Retrieved 30 April 2022. - ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 124–125.
- ^ Kamikawa Michio (1990), p. 258.
- ^ Breen & Teeuwen (2013), p. 114.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 127.
- ^ Blacker (1999).
- ^ BDK (2005), p. 68, 117.
- ^ Śubhakarasiṃha, Yī Xíng (
一 行 ). "大 毘盧遮那 成佛 神變 加持 經 卷 第 二 (Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra, fascicle 2) – T. 848". SAT Daizokyo Text Database. Retrieved 29 April 2022. - ^ "
当山 の歴史 ". Toyokawa Inari Official Website. Retrieved 29 April 2022. - ^ Simmer-Brown (2002), pp. 139–140.
- ^ Simmer-Brown (2002), pp. 69–79.
- ^ a b Capriles (2007).
- ^ Powers (n.d.).
- ^ Pal (1983).
- ^ Willis (1995), pp. 57–96.
- ^ Tharchin (1997).
- ^ Karthar Rinpoche (2006).
- ^ a b Yeshe (2001), p. 135.
Works cited
- Aruga, Natsuki (2014). "『
神道 集 』巻 三 「稲荷 大明 神事 」における表現 をめぐって : ダキニ天 信仰 の受容 を中心 に (Textual representation in the Shinto-shu text "Inari-daimyojin-no-koto": On the Acceptance of the Dakini Faith)" (PDF).人文 (Jinbun). 13. Gakushuin University Research Institute for Humanities: 222–210. - Bathgate, Michael (2004). The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Culture: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-88391-1.
- Blacker, Carmen (1999). The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-2033-4713-3.
- Boscaro, Adriana (2003). Rethinking Japan, Volume II: Social Sciences, Ideology and Thought. Curzon Press. ISBN 978-0-9044-0479-1.
- Breen, John; Teeuwen, Mark (2013). Shinto in History: Ways of the Kami. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1368-2704-4.
- Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2013). Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-6911-5786-3.
- Capriles, Elías (2007). "Buddhism and Dzogchen" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia, eds. (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Taylor & Francis.
- Dutt, Manmatha Nath (1895). A Prose English Translation of the Srimad Bhagavatam: Volumes 8–12. H.C. Dass, Elysium Press.
- Faure, Bernard (2015a). The Fluid Pantheon: Gods of Medieval Japan, Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5702-8.
- Faure, Bernard (2015b). Protectors and Predators: Gods of Medieval Japan, Volume 2. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5772-1.
- Gangadharan, N. (1954). The Agni-Purana, Part II. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
- The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra (PDF). BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. Translated by Rolf W. Giebel. Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai; Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. 2005.
- Gray, David B. (August 2005). "Eating the Heart of the Brahmin: Representations of Alterity and the Formation of Identity in Tantric Buddhist Discourse". History of Religions. 45 (1). University of Chicago Press: 45–69. doi:10.1086/497816. JSTOR 10.1086/497816. S2CID 161946773.
- Haneda, Shukai (2020).
未来 を開 く不思議 な天 尊 荼枳尼 天 の秘密 (Mirai o hiraku fushigi na tenson: Dakiniten no himitsu) (in Japanese). Daihōrinkaku. ISBN 978-4-8046-1429-8. - Hayakawa, Kōichi; Soga, Yoshinari; Hashimoto, Masatoshi; Shidachi, Masatomo (31 January 2008). "『
源平 盛衰 記 』全 釈 (三 ―巻一 ―3)(Genpei Jōsuiki zen'yaku, 3 - kan no ichi - 3)" (PDF).名古屋学院大学 論集 人文 ・自然 科学 篇 (Journal of Nagoya Gakuin University. Humanities and Natural Sciences) (in Japanese). 44 (2): 106–132. - Kamikawa Michio (June–September 1990). "Accession Rituals and Buddhism in Medieval Japan". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 17 (2/3). Nanzan University: 243–280. doi:10.18874/jjrs.17.2-3.1990.243-280.
- Karthar Rinpoche, Khenpo (2006). Karma Chakme's Mountain Dharma. Vol. 2. KTD Publications. ISBN 978-0-9741-0921-3.
- Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Clarendon Press.
- Pal, Pratapaditya (1983). Art of Tibet: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520051409.
- Powers, Tashi (n.d.). "Interview with Miranda Shaw". Enlightening Times. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- Matsumoto, Ikuyo (2022). "New Interpretations of Sokui Kanjō in the Modern Period: The Enthronement Ceremonies of Emperors Meiji, Taishō, and Shōwa". In Rambelli, Fabio; Porath, Or (eds.). Rituals of Initiation and Consecration in Premodern Japan: Power and Legitimacy in Kingship, Religion, and the Arts. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. pp. 173–194. ISBN 978-3-1107-2021-1.
- Shastry, J.L. (1970). "The Shiva Purana: Chapter 33 – The March of Vīrabhadra". Wisdom Library. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
- Simmer-Brown, Judith (2002). Dakini's Warm Breath:The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism. Shambhala Publications Inc. ISBN 978-1-5706-2920-4.
- Smyers, Karen Ann (1999). The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2058-9.
- Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro (1932). "The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra". Retrieved 4 July 2021.
- Tagare, G.V. (1958a). "The Brahmanda Purana: Section 3, Chapter 41 – The Narrative of Bhārgava Paraśurāma (e)". Wisdom Library. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
- Tagare, G.V. (1958b). "The Brahmanda Purana: Section 4b (Lalitopakhyana), Chapter 20 – The Deities on the Kiricakraratha". Wisdom Library. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
- Tharchin, Sermey Khensur Lobsang (1997). Sublime Path to Kechara Paradise: Vajrayogini's Eleven Yogas of Generation Stage Practice. Howell, New Jersey: Mahayana Sutra and Tantra Press. ISBN 978-0-9187-5313-7.
- Timalsina, Sthaneshwar (2016). "A Cognitive Approach to Tantric Language". Religions. 7 (12): 139. doi:10.3390/rel7120139.
- White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in Its South Asian Contexts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-2268-9484-3.
- Willis, Janice D. (1995). Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 978-1-5593-9052-1.
- Yeshe, Lama (2001). Introduction to Tantra: The Transformation of Desire. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-8617-1162-8.
Further reading
- Campbell, June (1996). Traveller in Space: In Search of the Female Identity in Tibetan Buddhism. George Braziller. ISBN 978-0-8076-1406-8.
- English, Elizabeth (2002). Vajrayogini: Her Visualizations, Rituals, and Forms. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-329-5.
- Haas, Michaela (2013). Dakini Power: Twelve Extraordinary Women Shaping the Transmission of Tibetan Buddhism in the West. Snow Lion. ISBN 978-1559394079.
- Norbu, Thinley (1981). Magic Dance: The Display of the Self Nature of the Five Wisdom Dakinis (2nd ed.). Jewel Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-9607000-0-4.
- Padmasambhava; Kunsang, Erik Pema (tr.) (1999). Dakini Teachings (2nd ed.). Rangjung Yeshe Publications. ISBN 978-962-7341-36-9.
External links
- Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2021
- CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)
- Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2021
- Articles with short description
- Short description is different from Wikidata
- Use dmy dates from May 2022
- Articles containing Sanskrit-language text
- Articles containing Standard Tibetan-language text
- Articles containing Mongolian-language text
- Articles containing Chinese-language text
- All articles with unsourced statements
- Articles with unsourced statements from January 2015
- All pages needing factual verification
- Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2021
- Commons category link is on Wikidata
- Articles with GND identifiers
- Articles with J9U identifiers
- Articles with LCCN identifiers
- Dakinis
- Demons in Hinduism
- Female legendary creatures
- Fox deities
- Hindu tantric deities
- Tantric practices
- Tibetan Buddhist deities
- Tibetan Buddhist practices
- Yidams
- Inari faith