The Western Territories (xiyu 西域せいいき)

The Western Territories (xiyu 西域せいいき) roughly correspond to the area of the modern Autonomous Region of Xinjiang. The name came into being when the Han empire 漢かん (206 BCE-220 CE) gained control over the city states along the Silk Road. The name was still in use during the early Qing period 清きよし (1644-1911) although in the narrow sense it only refers to that region during the Han period. During the Tang period 唐とう (618-907) the Western Territories were called the "Pacified West" (anxi 安西あんざい), and were given the modern name of "New Borderlands" (xinjiang 新しん疆) when the region was conquered by the armies of the Qing during the 18th century.

The Han Protectorate of the Western Territories (xiyu duhufu 西域せいいき都みやこ護まもる府ふ)

Under the emperors Wu 漢かん武たけ帝みかど (r. 141-87 BCE) and Zhao 漢かん昭あきら帝みかど (r. 87-74 BCE) the military agro-colonies (tuntian 屯田とんでん) of Luntai 輪わ臺だい (near Qiuci 龜かめ茲) and Quli 渠みぞ犁 were made seats of commandants for the envoys (shizhe xiaowei 使者ししゃ校こう尉じょう) who received and hosted the embassies of the Han court to the west. In 68 BCE Zheng Ji 鄭てい吉よし was sent out to supervise the creation of the military colonies of Quli. He carried out a campaign against the steppe federation of the Xiongnu 匈奴きょうど for the domination of the state of Cheshi 車くるま師し northeast of Quli.

The victory over the Xiongnu opened the southern route of the Silk Road for the Han empire. In 60 BCE the Xiongnu sub-khan Ri-zhu 日び逐 submitted to the Han, so that also the northern route came into the hands of the Han. The Han empire did not incorporate this region into the empire itself (as normally administered commanderies) but took over military control over the native states in the form of a protectorate.

The protectorate was first administered by a commandant of cavalry (jiduwei 騎き都と尉じょう) who was given the title of protector-general (duhu 都みやこ護まもる) and had his seat in Wulei 烏がらす壘るい. During the Later Han period 後こう漢かん (25-220 CE) the protector-general was an especially consigned official. The commandant over the military colonies of Quli was subordinated to the protector-general. The staff of the protector-general consisted of a vice commandant (fu xiaowei 副ふく校こう尉じょう), two commanders (sima 司馬しば), two sub-commanders (hou 侯ほう) and two battalion commanders (qianren 千せん人にん).

Apart from the control over the city states of the Silk Road, the protector-general also had the task to keep an eye on the activities of the peoples living further west, like the Dayuan 大だい宛あて, Wusun 烏がらす孫まご and Kangju 康かん居きょ. He received their emissaries that were sent to present tributes to the court of the Han dynasty and organised their travel to the capital Chang'an 長安ながやす (modern Xi'an 西安しーあん, Shaanxi). If there was a Chinese princess sent to the west to conclude "peace by marriage" (heqin 和親わしん) the protector-general had to care for her safe travel. On several occasions Han princesses were sent to the Wusun. If there were disturbances or rebellions among the states of the Western Territories, these had to be put down by the garrisoned troops of the protectorate. The names of ten of the eighteen protector-generals of the Former Han period are mentioned in historiographical sources.

When Wang Mang 王おう莽 (r. 8-22 CE) usurped the throne of the Han empire, the whole Western Territories rose in rebellion, and the protector-general had to flee.

After the foundation of the Later Han dynasty, eighteen states of the Western Territories sent an group of envoys to the court of Emperor Guangwu 漢かん光武みつたけ帝みかど (25-57 CE) with the request to reestablish the protectorate in order to bring peace to the region. Yet Emperor Guangwu refused. This was in 45 CE. Only in 74 CE Emperor Ming 漢かん明あかり帝みかど (r. 57-75 CE) appointed Chen Mu 陳ちん睦あつし as the new protector-general of the Western Territories. Yet Chen Mu was killed by the troops of the rebellious states of Yanqi 焉耆 and Qiuci.

In 91 CE Ban Chao 班はん超ちょう was sent out as Chief Clerk in Command of Troops (jiangbing zhangshi 將はた兵長へいちょう史し) with the order to conquer the Western Territories. He was appointed protector-general and took seat in Taqian (or Tagan) 它乾 near Qiuci. His successors Ren Shang 任にん尚なお and Duan Xi 段だん禧 were not happy enough to preserve the peace of the region. In 107 Duan Xi was killed, and the office of protector-general was finally given up. Instead, Ban Chao's son Ban Yong 班はん勇いさむ was appointed Chief Clerk of the Western Territories (xiyu zhangshi 西域せいいき長ちょう史し). This office had first been occupied by Xu Gan 徐じょ幹みき, as a lieutenant of protector-general Ban Chao. There was no fix seat of the Chief Clerk. Xu Gan and Ban Chao set up their command in Shule 疏勒, Suo Ban 索さく班はん in Yiwu 伊い吾われ, Ban Yong in Liuzhong 柳やなぎ中ちゅう, and later Chief Clerks in Yutian 于闐.

Later Chinese dynasties of the Southern and Northern Dynasties 南北なんぼく朝あさ (300~600) period followed this institution and appointed Chief Clerks of the Western Territories.

The Tang Protectorate of the Pacified West (anxi duhufu 安西あんざい都みやこ護まもる府ふ)

The Tang empire also set up a protectorate over the Western Territories, but with a different administrative structure than the Han. After the conquest of the kingdom of Gaochang 高こう昌あきら in 640 CE the Tang court established the Protectorate of the Pacified West with the seat in Jiaohe 交河 (near modern Turpan 吐魯番ばん, Xinjiang) in the newly created prefecture of Xizhou 西にし州しゅう.

In 662 the khan of the Western Türks (Xi Tujue 西にし突厥), Yi-pi-she-kui 乙おつ毗射匱, surrendered to the Tang, and the city states formerly controlled by the Türks (Qiuci, Yutian, Shule, Zhujupo 朱しゅ俱婆, and five states in the Pamir Range), sent tributes to the Tang court. With the occupation of Qiuci, the seat of the protectorate was transferred to this city, and the four largest of the city states, disposing of fortified city walls and garrisons, were made defense-commands. These were the so-called four defense commands of the Pacified West (anxi sizhen 四よん鎮), namely Qiuci, Yanqi, Yutian (at that time also called Pisha 毗沙), and Shule.

In 650, when the Western　Türks rebelled, the seat of the protector-general was shifted back to Xizhou, and the four defense commands were disbanded for a time. Only in 657, when the Türkish leader A-shi-na He-lu 阿おもね史し那賀なか魯 was defeated, Qiuci again became the seat of the protectorate. The next challenge came in the shape of the troops of Tubo 吐蕃 (Tibet) that occupied Qiuci in 670. At the same time the Türks again rebelled against the Tang empire. Ashina Duzhi 阿おもね史し那な都と支ささえ who had formerly been appointed commander-in-chief (dudu 都みやこ督ただし) of the area command (dudufu 都と督とく府ふ) of Fuyan 匐延 by the Tang court was defeated in 679 by Pacification Commissioner-in-Chief (anfu dashi 安やす撫なで大使たいし) Pei Xingjian 裴行儉. Wang Fangyi 王おう方かた翼つばさ, the new protector-general, took seat in Suiye 碎葉, a garrison that replaced Yanqi as one of the four defense commands. In 686 again the Western Territories were lost to the kingdom of Tubo. General Wang Xiaojie 王おう孝たかし傑すぐる expelled the Tibetans and had garrisoned 24,000 Tang troops in the four garrisons in order to be better prepared for future conflicts.

During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong 唐から玄げん宗むね (r. 712-755) Prince Sisheng 嗣昇 of Shaan 陝 was bestowed the honorific title of Grand protector of the Pacified West, while the real business was done by vice protector Guo Qianguan 郭かく虔けん瓘. In 718 the emperor appointed Tang Jiahui 湯ゆ嘉よしみ惠めぐみ as the first military commissioner (jiedu jinglüe shi 節ふし經略けいりゃく度ど使し, short jiedushi 節度せつど使し) of the four defense commands. This measure corresponded to a general measure taken by the emperor to have a tighter military grip on the provinces of his empire.

The Protectorate of the Pacified West was from them on administrated by a the Military Commissioner of the Four Defense Commands (sizhen jiedushi 四よん鎮節度せつど使し), also called Military Commissioner of the Desert West (qixi jiedushi 磧西節度せつど使し). The seat of the commissioner was Qiuci. Shortly later the khan of the Ten Tribes (shixing 十じゅう姓せい) of the Western Türks asked to be permitted to take residence in Suiye. His request was answered positively, and Yanqi again became one of the four defense commands.

During the rebellion of An Lushan 安やす祿ろく山さん, large contingents of troops from the west were sent to the east to put down the rebellion. The king of Tubo used this situation to conquer the Western Territories. Although the four garrisons could withstand the Tibetan troops, the contact between the garrisons of the protectorate and the capital Chang'an was cut down. Only in 781 Guo Xin 郭かく昕 was able to resume contact with the court. He was highly rewarded for being able to defend the four defense commands against the invaders. In 789, when the Buddhist monk Wukong 悟空ごくう returned from India, he visited most of the four garrisons. Only shortly later the whole region fell into the hands of the king of Tubo and the Uyghurs 回かい鶻. The region was only conquered again by Chinese armies during the Qing period.

The territory of the Protectorate of the Pacified West was crudely divided into area commands (dudufu), the most important of which were the four defense commands.

The Protectorates of Beiting 北きた庭にわ, Mengchi 濛池 and Kunling 昆こん陵りょう

There were some more protectorates established in the western regions during the Tang period, namely the protectorate of Beiting 北きた庭にわ (administered from Tingzhou 庭にわ州しゅう), the protectorate of Mengchi 濛池, and the protectorate of Kunling 昆こん陵りょう.

The protectorate of Mengchi was administered from Suiye 碎葉 that was for a certain time itself one of the four defense commands. The office of protector-general was taken over by the Türkish khan A-shi-na Bu-zhen 阿おもね史し那な步ふ真ま and his successors. The area was dominated by the Türkish people of the Türgiš 突騎施ほどこせ so that in the late 7th century it was difficult for the Tang empire to enforce control. Mengchi was therefore only an indirectly administered (jimi 羈縻) protectorate. The area commands of Dayuan 大だい宛あて (modern Toshkent, Uzbekistan; located on the ancient territory of Dayuan) and Kangju 康やすし居きょ (modern Samarkand, Uzbekistan; the ancient site of the country of the Kangju), were located in the territory of the protectorate of Mengchi.

The protectorate of Kunling was located in the region of modern Yining 伊寧いねい, Xingjiang, and likewise an indirectly administered protectorate. The office of protector-general was taken over by the local ruler Ashna Mishe 阿おもね史し那な彌わたる射しゃ and then his grandson Xianceng 獻けんじ曾. The protectorate was later given up.

The protectorate of Beiting supervised the area commands of Damo 大だい漠ばく州しゅう (around Fuhai 福ふく海かい, Xinjiang), Yinshan 陰かげ山やま州しゅう (near Lake Alakol, Kazakhstan), Xuanchi 玄げん池州いけす (near Lake Zaysan, Kazakhstan), Yanbo 鹽しお泊とまり州しゅう (near Karamay 克かつ拉ひしげ瑪依, Xinjiang), Fuyan 匐延州しゅう (near Hoboksar 和布わかめ克かつ賽さい爾なんじ, Xinjiang), Jinman 金滿きんまん州しゅう (near modern Jimsar 吉木よしぎ薩爾, Xinjiang), Jinfu 金きん附ふ州しゅう (near Qitai 奇き臺だい and Mulei 木き垒, Xinjiang), Shuanghe 雙そう河かわ (near Wenquan 溫泉おんせん, Xinjiang), Yanmian 咽のど麪 or 咽のど麵 (around Taldykorgan, Kazakhstan), Wenlu 嗢鹿 (modern Yining, Xinjiang), Jieshan 絜山 or Jieshan 潔きよし山さん (north of Lake Issyk Gul in modern Kirgizstan), and some other short-lived area commands whose location is not known, like Yingsuo 鷹たか娑しゃば, Yanlu 鹽しお祿ろく, Gexi 哥係, Gushu 孤こ舒, Xiyan 西にし鹽しお, Dongyan 東ひがし鹽しお, Chile 叱しか勒, Jiase 迦瑟, Pingluo 憑洛, Shatuo 沙すな陀, or Dalan 答こたえ爛ただれ.

Outside the territory directly controlled by protectors-general, the Tang general Wang Mingyuan 王おう名めい遠どお established 16 area commands (dudufu) in the region beyond the Pamir Range. Part of their rulers were appointed commanders-in-chief (dudu), while others were only made prefects. All these territories were further divided into indirectly administered prefectures (jimizhou 羈縻州しゅう). This means that the Tang empire relied on the loyalty of the native rulers and did not appoint any Tang officials. In return for the official titles as administrators of the Tang empire, the native rulers had to offer tributes to the Tang court. Formally, these area commands were subordinated to the Tang Protectorate.