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Cao Cao Mausoleum

Coordinates: 36°14′27″N 114°15′35″E / 36.24083°N 114.25972°E / 36.24083; 114.25972
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36°14′27″N 114°15′35″E / 36.24083°N 114.25972°E / 36.24083; 114.25972

Excavated entrance to the Xigaoxue Tomb No. 2.
Cao Cao Mausoleum
Traditional Chinese曹操そうそう高だか陵りょう
Simplified Chinese曹操そうそう高だか陵りょう
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinCáo Cāo Gāolíng
Wei Mausoleum
Traditional Chinese魏ぎ高陵こうりょう
Simplified Chinese魏ぎ高陵こうりょう
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinWèi Gāolíng
Xigaoxue Tomb No. 2
Traditional Chinese西高にしこう穴あな2號ごう墓はか
Simplified Chinese西高にしこう穴あな2号ごう墓はか
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinXīgāoxuè Èrhào Mù

The Cao Cao Mausoleum, also known as the Gaoling Mausoleum of Wei and the Xigaoxue Tomb No. 2, is a tomb in Xigaoxue Village, Anfeng Township, Anyang County, Anyang City, Henan Province, China. It is purported to be the burial site of Cao Cao (155–220 CE), a prominent warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. The discovery of the tomb was reported on 27 December 2009 by the Henan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau.[1] In 2013, the tomb became part of the seventh batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in China.[2]

Historical background

[edit]

Cao Cao (155–220 CE) was a warlord and politician who rose to prominence towards the end of the Han dynasty (c. 184–220 CE) and became the de facto head of government in China during that period. In 216 CE, he received the title of a vassal king – King of Wei (魏ぎ王おう) – from Emperor Xian, the figurehead Han emperor whom he controlled. Through his military conquests, he laid the foundation for what was to become the state of Cao Wei (220–266 CE), which was established by his son and successor, Cao Pi. Cao Cao died in 220 CE in Luoyang at the age of 65 and was posthumously honoured as "King Wu" (武たけ王おう; literally "martial king") by Emperor Xian.[3]

The location of Cao Cao's tomb has been a mystery over the centuries. According to his official biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), he was interred in the Gaoling (高陵こうりょう; literally "high mausoleum") about one month after his death.[4] However, he was also believed to be buried elsewhere. Other purported burial sites of Cao Cao include: Xu (許もと; present-day Xuchang, Henan), the capital of the Han dynasty at the time; beneath the Zhang River; below the Bronze Sparrow Platform, a terrace in Ye (in present-day Handan, Hebei), the capital of Cao Cao's vassal kingdom.

Another legend, which originated in the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) and was popularised by the works of Luo Guanzhong, Pu Songling and others in later periods, says that Cao Cao had 72 tombs constructed to serve as decoys and protection against grave robbers.[1][5] The Northern Dynasty Tombs in Ci County, Handan, Hebei were initially believed to be the 72 tombs, but archaeologists later confirmed that they belonged to the imperial families of the Eastern Wei and Northern Qi dynasties and have nothing to do with Cao Cao.[6]

Discovery

[edit]

The tomb was discovered in December 2008 when workers at a nearby kiln were digging for mud to make bricks. Its discovery was initially not reported. The local authorities found out only after they seized a stone tablet bearing the inscription 'King Wu of Wei' – Cao Cao's posthumous title – from grave robbers who claimed to have stolen it from the tomb. Over the following year, archaeologists recovered more than 250 relics from the tomb, including stone paintings depicting social life in Cao Cao's time, stone tablets bearing inscriptions of sacrificial objects, and several items labelled as "personal belongings" frequently used by Cao Cao, including weapons and stone pillows. The bones of three persons were also unearthed and identified to be those of a man in his 60s, a woman in her 50s and another woman in her 20s.[1][5][7]

The tomb, made of bricks, faced east and formed a shape resembling the Chinese character jia (甲きのえ; jiǎ) when viewed from above. It covered an area of roughly 740 square metres and its deepest point was about 15 metres below the ground. The underground tomb has two main chambers (front and back), four side chambers and connecting passages. An inclined passage 39.5 metres long and 9.8 metres wide leads to the underground chambers.[1][8]

The discovery of the tomb was confirmed by archaeological officials on 27 December 2009.[1]

Controversy

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Since the tomb was discovered, many sceptics and experts have pointed out problems with it and raised doubts about its authenticity. Yuan Jixi, a vice dean of the Renmin University of China's School of Chinese Classics, suggested that the items in the tomb cannot be guaranteed as authentic because the tomb had been greatly disturbed by grave robbers. Yuan also noted that the most important pieces of evidence – namely the artefacts bearing the inscription 'King Wu of Wei' – may have been deliberately placed in the tomb for deceptive purposes.[9]

31 December 2009 seminar

[edit]

On 31 December 2009, the Henan Provincial Institute of Archaeology invited experts from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences's Institute of Archaeology, Zhengzhou University, and Henan University to join its researchers in a seminar to discuss the findings from the tomb and respond to queries from the press. The most popular topics discussed at the seminar include:

  • Whether the tomb was a decoy (one of the 72 tombs mentioned in legend): The experts said that the legend of the 72 tombs is not reliable as compared to information from historical sources, and that the legend should not be regarded seriously. They cited the case of the Northern Dynasty Tombs in Ci County, Handan, Hebei, which were previously mistakenly believed to be the 72 tombs.[6]
  • Whether to believe the tomb robbers or archaeologists: One of the eight stone tablets bearing the inscription 'King Wu of Wei' was retrieved by the authorities from tomb robbers, while the other seven were unearthed directly from the tomb by professionals.[6] The authenticity of the tablets remains in question.
  • Whether DNA testing can confirm the identity of the male: According to the experts, the use of ancient DNA technology in archaeological research has yet to be fully developed so there may be technical difficulties. Besides, the male skeleton was not well preserved so the DNA extraction procedure may be very complicated. Even if the technology is fully functional, scientists still require DNA samples from a verified living descendant of Cao Cao to confirm the results. It is very difficult to find a living descendant of Cao Cao and verify that he/she is really a descendant of Cao Cao.[6]
  • The identities of the two females: Researchers believe that the older female is Lady Bian, who, according to her historical biography in the Sanguozhi, was buried in the Gaoling (高陵こうりょう; literally "high mausoleum") – the same place as Cao Cao.[10] The younger one is believed to be a servant.[6]
  • Whether the adjacent tomb, called the "Xigaoxue Tomb No. 1", was Cao Cao's tomb: The experts said that the first tomb is unlikely to be Cao Cao's tomb because its dimensions are smaller than the second tomb.[6]

Endorsement by the SACH

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In early January 2010, in light of the controversy over the authenticity of the tomb, Han Fuzheng, a lawyer from Cangzhou, made a freedom of information (FOI) request to the State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) for the disclosure of the information and assessment standards used in confirming the tomb. On 28 January, the SACH stated that the procedures associated with the excavation process, archaeological research and verification, publishing of results, etc., were all in accordance with the rules of archaeological work. This statement by the SACH effectively served as a legal endorsement of the results from the research conducted throughout 2009 which suggest that the tomb was Cao Cao's.[11]

August 2010 forum

[edit]

In August 2010, 23 experts and scholars presented evidence at the National High-Level Forum on Culture of the Three Kingdoms Period held in Suzhou, Jiangsu to argue that the findings and the artefacts of the tomb are fake.[12]

During the forum, Lin Kuicheng, a historian and member of the China Federation of Literary and Art Circles, pointed out that Cao Cao should not be referred to as "King Wu of Wei" before 220 CE. After Cao Cao died in March 220 CE, his vassal king title – "King of Wei" – was inherited by his son, Cao Pi, who continued to hold the title until around December when he forced Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty, to abdicate in his favour. Since Cao Cao was buried about one month after his death and his funeral was most likely presided over by Cao Pi, it would be taboo to refer to Cao Cao as "King Wu of Wei" because the "King of Wei" (Cao Pi) was still living then. Furthermore, when Emperor Xian relinquished his throne to Cao Pi, he referred to Cao Pi and Cao Cao as "King of Wei" and "King Wu" respectively in his official abdication edict; Cao Cao was never referred to as "King Wu of Wei" in the edict.[13][14]

Cao Huan and Cao Yu

[edit]

On 12 September 2010, the Henan Provincial Institute of Archaeology and Cultural Heritage and the Anyang County Cultural Centre published an article in the journal Kaogu (Archaeology) about the tomb. In the article, they claimed that the tomb and the adjacent one (the Xigaoxue Tomb No. 1) actually belonged to Cao Huan (the fifth and last Wei emperor) and his father Cao Yu (a son of Cao Cao) respectively. The defining piece of evidence was a seal that was initially thought to be a simple official seal, but was later discovered to be actually a seal bearing the tomb owner's name. When the seal was first revealed after it was excavated from the tomb, it was presented upside-down so the Chinese character inscribed on it in seal script did not make any sense. After the error was corrected, archaeologists recognised that the Chinese character on the seal is huan (奐; huàn), hence they deduced that the tomb was Cao Huan's. When compared with the Chinese characters inscribed on a bronze seal belonging to Cao Xiu (whose tomb's discovery was announced and confirmed in May 2010),[15] archaeologists noticed that the Chinese character on the seal from the Xigaoxue tomb bore some slight resemblance to the Chinese character cao (曹; cáo). According to the Wei Shipu (魏ぎ世よ譜ふ; Genealogy of Wei), Cao Huan died at the age of 57, which was rather close to the age at which the man in the tomb died.[16]

Fang Beichen, a Sichuan University history professor who specialises in the Three Kingdoms period, published an essay on his personal blog about the findings from the Xigaoxue tomb and the pieces of evidence which point out that the tombs are actually the mausoleums of Cao Huan and Cao Yu.[17]

Current status

[edit]

In 2010, the tomb became part of the fifth batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in China.[2]

The excavation of the two tombs was completed by the end of 2010, with over 400 artefacts unearthed and 100 damaged relics restored by the provincial archaeologist team. To enhance the protection of the tomb, the local government in Anyang has established a special committee to oversee and manage the tomb. As of March 2011, the tomb is not open to the public yet even though preparatory works for its opening are underway. The government has also built a temporary exhibition hall and a supporting ring corridor.[18]

As of December 2011, it has been announced that the government is constructing a museum on the original site of the tomb which will be named 'Cao Cao Mausoleum Museum' (曹操そうそう高陵こうりょう博物はくぶつ馆).[19] On 12 November 2012, a private museum in Zhengzhou donated a stele to the Cao Cao Mausoleum.[20]

Media reports from 2018 describe the tomb complex as having an outer rammed earth foundation, a spirit way, and structures on the east and south sides. Archaeologists have also noted that the tomb's exterior and perimeter appear to be deliberately left unmarked; there are neither structures above the ground around the tomb nor massive piles of debris in the vicinity. This indirectly confirms historical records that Cao Pi had ordered the monuments on the surface to be systematically dismantled to honour his father's wishes to be buried in a simple manner in a concealed location, as well as to prevent tomb robbers from finding and looting the tomb.[21][22][23][24]

Archaeologists also found another tomb next to Cao Cao's that was built around the same time. The other tomb, however, contains only clothes and no human remains were found inside. Experts believe that this tomb belongs to Cao Cao's eldest son, Cao Ang, who was killed at the Battle of Wancheng and his body was never found.[21][22][23] A museum was opened at the site in April 2023.[25]

References

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xigaoxue tomb no 2.
  1. ^ a b c d e Lin, Shujuan (28 December 2009). "Tomb of legendary ruler unearthed". China Daily. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
  2. ^ a b Yang, Yuguo (3 May 2013). "河南かなん曹操そうそう高陵こうりょう少林寺しょうりんじ入にゅう选全国ぜんこく重点じゅうてん文物ぶんぶつ保ほ护单位い [Henan's Cao Cao Mausoleum and Shaolin Monastery are selected to be Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level]" (in Chinese). CRI online. Archived from the original on 4 May 2014. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  3. ^ (庚かのえ子こ，王おう崩くずし于洛陽ひ，年ねん六ろく十じゅう六ろく。 ... 謚曰武たけ王おう。) Sanguozhi vol. 1.
  4. ^ (二に月がつ丁ちょう卯しげる，葬そう高だか陵りょう。) Sanguozhi vol. 1.
  5. ^ a b "曹操そうそう墓ぼ惊现安やす阳 千古之谜被破解 [Cao Cao tomb appears in Anyang, a centuries-old mystery is resolved]" (in Chinese). dahe.cn. 27 December 2009. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Zhang, Tiyi (1 January 2010). "曹操そうそう高陵こうりょう说明会かい:8件けん"魏ぎ武たけ王おう"石せき牌ぱい7件けん为专家か挖出 [Seminar on the Cao Cao Mausoleum: 7 out of 8 stone tablets (bearing the inscription) "King Wu of Wei" were unearthed by professionals]" (in Chinese). Dahe Daily. Archived from the original on 4 May 2014. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  7. ^ Zhang, Shuzhuo (27 December 2009). "河南かなん安やす阳考古こうこ确认曹操そうそう高だか陵りょう 可能かのう藏ぞう其遗骨こつ(图) [Archaeologists in Anyang, Henan confirm Cao Cao's mausoleum. Remains might be found there. (pictured)]" (in Chinese). Tengxun News. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
  8. ^ "河南かなん文物ぶんぶつ局きょく提出ていしゅつ确认曹操そうそう墓はか葬そう六ろく大依おおより据すえ [Henan Cultural Heritage Bureau lists out six pieces of evidence confirming Cao Cao's tomb]" (in Chinese). www.people.com.cn. 28 December 2009. Archived from the original on 6 January 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
  9. ^ Zhang, Zhongjiang (29 December 2009). "学者がくしゃ称たたえ曹操そうそう墓はか葬そう确认在ざい河南かなん安やす阳证据すえ不足ふそく [Experts say there is insufficient evidence to confirm that Cao Cao's tomb is in Anyang, Henan]" (in Chinese). Tengxun News. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  10. ^ ([太ふとし和わ四よん年ねん] ... 其年五ご月がつ，后きさき崩くずし。七なな月がつ，合ごう葬そう高だか陵りょう。) Sanguozhi vol. 5.
  11. ^ Wang, Yun (29 January 2010). "国家こっか文物ぶんぶつ局きょく认定河南かなん安やす阳东汉大墓ぼ墓はか主ぬし为曹操そうそう [SACH confirms that the Eastern Han tomb in Anyang, Henan belonged to Cao Cao]" (in Chinese). Tengxun News. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
  12. ^ Jiang, Wanjuan (24 August 2010). "Cao Cao's tomb: Experts reveal that findings and artifacts are fake". Global Times. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  13. ^ (咨爾魏ぎ王おう：昔むかし者しゃ帝みかど堯禪位い于虞舜しゅん，舜しゅん亦また以命禹，天命てんめい不ふ于常，惟おもんみ歸き有德うとく。漢かん道どう陵りょう遲おそ，世せい失しつ其序，降くだ及朕躬，大亂たいらん茲昏，羣兇肆逆，宇內顛覆てんぷく。賴よりゆき武たけ王おう神武じんむ，拯茲難なん于四方しほう，惟おもんみ清きよし區く夏なつ，以保綏我宗廟そうびょう，豈あに予よ一いち人にん獲え乂，俾九服ふく實じつ受其賜たまもの。今こん王おう欽承前ぜん緒いとぐち，光ひかり于乃德とく，恢文武之たけゆき大業おおわざ，昭あきら爾なんじ考こう之の弘ひろし烈れつ。皇靈こうれい降くだ瑞みず，人にん神しん告つげ徵ちょう，誕惟亮あきら采さい，師し錫すず朕ちん命いのち，僉曰爾なんじ度ど克かつ恊于虞おそれ舜しゅん，用よう率りつ我わが唐から典てん，敬けい遜へりくだ爾なんじ位い。於戲！天てん之の歷數れきすう在ざい爾なんじ躬，允まこと執と其中，天てん祿ろく永なが終おわり；君くん其祗順じゅん大禮たいれい，饗きょう茲萬國こく，以肅承天命てんめい。) Sanguozhi vol. 2.
  14. ^ "林りん奎成：曹丕稱しょう帝みかど前ぜん曹操そうそう並なみ未み被ひ稱しょう為ため"魏ぎ武たけ王おう" [Lin Kuicheng: Before Cao Pi became emperor, Cao Cao was never referred to as 'King Wu of Wei'.]" (in Chinese). ifeng.com. 21 August 2010. Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  15. ^ "Ancient general Cao Xiu's tomb discovered in Luoyang". People's Daily Online. 18 May 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  16. ^ (魏ぎ世よ譜ふ曰：封ふう帝みかど為ため陳ひね留とめ王おう。年とし五ご十じゅう八はち，大安たいあん元年がんねん崩くずれ，謚曰元もと皇帝こうてい。) Wei Shipu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 4.
  17. ^ Fang, Beichen (25 August 2010). "曹操そうそう墓ぼ应为曹宇、曹奂父子ふし王おう原げん陵りょう（之これ七なな） [The Cao Cao Tomb is actually the mausoleum of Cao Yu and Cao Huan (Part 7)]" (in Chinese). Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  18. ^ "Preparation for Cao Cao's tomb opening ongoing, no timetable set". People's Daily Online. 29 March 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  19. ^ "曹操そうそう高陵こうりょう考古こうこ建けん设未受争议干扰 安やす阳筹建けん博物はくぶつ馆 [Archaeological research on Cao Cao Mausoleum not affected by criticism. Anyang government considers building a museum.]" (in Chinese). China News. 6 December 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  20. ^ "民みん办博物ぶつ馆向曹操そうそう高陵こうりょう捐赠石碑せきひ 盼更多藏たぞう家行いえゆき动 [Private museum donates stele to Cao Cao Mausoleum. It is hoped that more collectors would follow suit.]" (in Chinese). China News. 13 November 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  21. ^ a b Everington, Keoni (26 March 2018). "Tomb of legendary Chinese general Cao Cao found". Taiwan News. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  22. ^ a b Zhou, Laura (26 March 2018). "Archaeologists confident they have found body of fabled Chinese warlord Cao Cao". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  23. ^ a b "梟雄きょうゆう出土しゅつど 河南かなん考古こうこ找到曹操そうそう遺骸いがい [A xiaoxiong is unearthed; Henan archaeologists discover Cao Cao's remains]". Apple Daily (in Chinese). 25 March 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  24. ^ "Archaeologists claim to have found body of China's Cao Cao". Mirage News. 27 March 2018. Archived from the original on 27 March 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  25. ^ Xie Jianxiao (谢建晓); Yang Zhitian (杨之甜) (28 April 2023). "Anyang Cao Cao Gaoling Archaeological Site Museum opens" 安やす阳曹操みさお高陵こうりょう遗址博物はくぶつ馆开馆. Henan Daily. Archived from the original on 28 July 2023 – via Henan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism.
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